27 Defining a robust sow: swine nutrition perspective on reproduction and lactation

Abstract Improvements in modern sow prolificacy have markedly increased the number of pigs weaned, thus the ability of sows to provide nutrients to support fetal growth and milk production has been enhanced. The goals of the gestation nutrition program consist of meeting the nutrient requirements for maintenance and growth and for adequate conceptus development, while managing body condition. Early gestation represents the best opportunity for replenishing body reserves, whereas in late gestation, both estimated protein deposition and energy requirement are exponentially increased and directed towards fetal growth and mammary development. Increased feed intake after breeding has been presumed to be detrimental to embryo survival; however, data with modern line sows demonstrates to feed thin sows to recover body condition as quickly as possible while avoiding feed deprivation immediately after breeding. Importance of body condition scoring remains unchanged: feed thin sows to bring back to adequate body condition and prevent over-conditioned sows at farrowing. A recent meta-analysis showed increasing late gestation feed intake seems to modestly improve piglet birth weight by 28 g per piglet in gilts and sows. Also, recent findings in gestating sows suggest modern genotypes have improved feed efficiency and propensity for growth. Therefore, increasing energy intake during late gestation has a modest effect on piglet birth weight and a negative effect on stillborn rate. Historically, lactation catabolism impacted subsequent reproductive performance of sows, particularly in first-parity. However, contemporary sows appear to be increasingly resistant to the negative effects of lactational catabolism. Even so, continued emphasis on maximizing lactation feed intake is critical to support milk production and prevent excessive lean tissue mobilization. Research data suggests that ad libitum feeding and offering lactation diets during the wean-to-estrus interval is not needed. Modern genetic sow lines appear to be more robust from a nutritional perspective than in the past.

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PSXI-5 Effect of increasing feed intake during late gestation on piglet birth weight and weaning weight of low backfat thickness sows

Journal of Animal Science ◽

10.1093/jas/skz258.771 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 97 (Supplement_3) ◽

pp. 387-388

Author(s):

Yuanfei Zhou ◽

Zuhong Liu ◽

Jian Peng

Keyword(s):

Birth Weight ◽

Feed Intake ◽

Energy Requirement ◽

Body Weight Loss ◽

Late Gestation ◽

Backfat Thickness ◽

Large White ◽

Weaning Weight ◽

Weight Variation ◽

High Feed

Abstract This study investigated the effect of feed intake during late gestation on piglet birth weight and weaning weight of sows with the low backfat thickness (BF) at gestation 90 d. A total of 397 crossbred Landrance × Large White sows according to feed intakes were randomly allotted to three groups 2.8 kg/d (the energy requirement for sow maintenance), 3.6 kg/d and 4.0 kg/d from day 90 to day 110 of gestation. Sows were weighed and measured BF at 90 d and at 110 d of gestation and at weaning. Piglet performance at parturition and at weaning and wean-to-estrus of sows were recorded. Although sows had a tendency to increase BF at gestation 110 d (P = 0.09) and had more BF gain during late gestation with higher feed intake (P < 0.01), there was no evidence for differences in piglet birth weight, within-litter birth weight variation and weak piglet rate, and the number of total born, born alive and stillborn. During lactation, sows fed with high feed intake in late gestation increased body weight loss (P < 0.01). And no differences were observed in piglet performance at weaning and wean-to-estrus interval of sows. In conclusion, during late gestation, sows fed with feed intake more than energy requirement for maintenance had no effect on piglet birth weight or weaning weight.

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87 Beef Heifers Housed in Muddy Environmental Conditions Lose Body Weight and Body Condition but Meet Gestational Requirements for Fetal Growth

Journal of Animal Science ◽

10.1093/jas/skab235.081 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 99 (Supplement_3) ◽

pp. 46-46

Author(s):

Kirsten Nickles ◽

Alejandro E Relling ◽

Alvaro Garcia-Guerra ◽

Francis L Fluharty ◽

Anthony J Parker

Keyword(s):

Body Weight ◽

Birth Weight ◽

Body Condition ◽

Fetal Growth ◽

Block Design ◽

Repeated Measurements ◽

Late Gestation ◽

Energy Requirements ◽

Climate Projections ◽

Beef Heifers

Abstract Beef heifers experience an exponential increase in energy requirements during late gestation. Heifers must simultaneously grow a fetus, reach mature body weight, and prepare for their first lactation. In spring calving herds, these energy demands coincide with environmental stressors. Future climate projections for the Midwest predict increased winter rainfall, creating muddy conditions. It is likely that muddy conditions increase heifer energy requirements. The increased energy requirements, if not met, may compromise growth of the heifer and fetus. The objectives of this experiment were to evaluate the effects of muddy conditions on heifer body weight (BW), body condition score (BCS), and calf birth weight. Eighteen Angus heifers (n = 9/treatment) were paired based on initial BW. One heifer from each pair was assigned to either the mud (MUD) or control (CON) treatment. Heifers in the CON treatment were housed in pens with sawdust, and heifers in the MUD treatment were housed in pens with mud (20.3 ± 7.6 cm). Heifers were housed individually, and each pair received the same dietary allowance based on the CON heifer’s BW for maintenance, growth, and gestation. From day 196 to 266 of gestation, heifers were weighed and assigned a BCS weekly. Data were analyzed as a randomized complete block design with repeated measurements (SAS 9.4). On day 196 of gestation, heifers were similar in BW and BCS (P > 0.05). By day 266, MUD heifers weighed 43.5 kg less than CON heifers (P < 0.01) and were assigned a BCS of 4.3 compared with CON heifers that were a BCS of 6.1 (P < 0.01). Calf birth weight was not different (P = 0.21). Heifers in both treatments were able to maintain fetal growth, however, MUD heifers did not meet their energy requirements and had decreased BW and BCS compared with the CON heifers.

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126 Impact of Elevating Feed Amounts in Late Gestation on Sow and Litter Performance

Journal of Animal Science ◽

10.1093/jas/skab054.091 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 99 (Supplement_1) ◽

pp. 54-55

Author(s):

Ximena A Paz Portal ◽

David Rosero ◽

Scott D Carter

Keyword(s):

Birth Weight ◽

Body Condition ◽

Feed Intake ◽

Body Condition Score ◽

Late Gestation ◽

Lactating Sows ◽

Condition Score ◽

Main Effects ◽

The Impact

Abstract The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of elevating feed amounts during late gestation on the performance of sows and their pigs during lactation. A total of 419 individually-housed sows were used. Sows were balanced by parity (P2 –P10) and body condition score (BCS, 1–5) on d 90 of gestation to 2 treatments [Control or bump-feeding (BP)]. Within each treatment, sows were fed a common gestation diet according to their body condition: (thin, BCS < 3 = 2.7 kg/day; ideal BCS 3 = 2 kg/day; fat, BCS > 3 = 1.6 kg/day). For sows allotted to BP, feed intake was increased by 0.91 kg/d on d 90. Data were analyzed for main effects of treatment and within body condition category. Bump-feeding decreased lactation ADFI of ideal sows (P = 0.015; 6.53 and 5.99 kg, for control and BP, respectively), but not of thin (P = 0.122, 6.05 and 6.80 kg) or fat sows (P = 0.136, 5.79 and 6.78 kg). The number of still-born pigs decreased when thin (P = 0.005, 1.63 and 0.93 pigs for control and bump-feeding) and fat sows (P = 0.133, 1.74 and 1.13 pigs) were BP. However, this was not observed for ideal sows (P = 0.779, 1.28 and 1.27 pigs). Moreover, piglet birth weight (measured in a subsample of 55 litters) improved with BP (P = 0.048; 1.36 vs 1.55 kg, for control and BP, respectively). The impact of BP on birth weight was more evident for fat sows (P = 0.08, 1.25 and 1.61 kg). This resulted in a greater proportion of small pigs (< 3.63 kg) at weaning in litters from fat sows that were not BP (P = 0.019; 7.41 vs 0%, for control and BP, respectively). In conclusion, elevating feed amounts in late gestation did not improve the performance of ideal sows but it positively impacted the performance of thin and fat lactating sows.

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Fetal Thyroid Hormone Level at Birth Is Associated with Fetal Growth

The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism ◽

10.1210/jc.2010-2814 ◽

2011 ◽

Vol 96 (6) ◽

pp. E934-E938 ◽

Cited By ~ 60

Author(s):

Beverley M. Shields ◽

Beatrice A. Knight ◽

Anita Hill ◽

Andrew T. Hattersley ◽

Bijay Vaidya

Keyword(s):

Birth Weight ◽

Thyroid Hormone ◽

Cord Blood ◽

Thyroid Function ◽

Fetal Growth ◽

Late Gestation ◽

Third Trimester ◽

Free T4 ◽

Skeletal Size ◽

Fetal Thyroid

Context: Thyroid function is known to play an important role in fetal neurological development, but its role in regulating fetal growth is not well established. Overt maternal and fetal thyroid disorders are associated with reduced birth weight. We hypothesized that, even in the absence of overt thyroid dysfunction, maternal and fetal thyroid function influence fetal growth. Aim: In normal, healthy pregnancies, we aimed to assess whether fetal thyroid hormone at birth (as measured in cord blood) is associated with fetal growth. We also aimed to study whether fetal thyroid hormone at birth is associated with maternal thyroid hormone in the third trimester. Methods: In 616 healthy mother-child pairs, TSH, free T4 (FT4), and free T3 (FT3) were measured in mothers at 28 wk gestation and in umbilical cord blood at birth. Birth weight, length, head circumference, and tricep and bicep skinfold thicknesses were measured on the babies. Results: Cord FT4 was associated with birth weight (r = 0.25; P < 0.001), length (r = 0.17; P < 0.001), and sum of skinfolds (r = 0.19; P < 0.001). There were no associations between birth measurements and either cord TSH or cord FT3. Maternal FT4 and cord FT4 were correlated (r = 0.14; P = 0.0004), and there were weaker negative associations between maternal TSH and cord FT4 (r = −0.08; P = 0.04) and FT3 (r = −0.10; P = 0.01). Conclusion: Associations between cord FT4 and birth size suggest that fetal thyroid function may be important in regulating fetal growth, both of skeletal size and fat. The correlation between third-trimester maternal FT4 and cord FT4 supports the belief that maternal T4 crosses the placenta even in late gestation.

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316. MATERNAL DIETARY ARGININE SUPPLEMENTATION DURING LATE GESTATION IMPROVES REPRODUCTIVE EFFICIENCY IN PIGS

Reproduction Fertility and Development ◽

10.1071/srb10abs316 ◽

2010 ◽

Vol 22 (9) ◽

pp. 116

Author(s):

M. J. De Blasio ◽

C. T. Roberts ◽

K. Kind ◽

R. Smits ◽

M. Nottle ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Blood Flow ◽

Birth Weight ◽

Fetal Growth ◽

Umbilical Vein ◽

Late Gestation ◽

Critical Periods ◽

Placental Development ◽

Pregnant Rats ◽

Growth And Survival ◽

Arginine Supplementation

Arginine (a non-essential amino acid) and its conversion to nitric oxide (NO) can promote formation of new blood vessels and cause vasodilation. This may reduce resistance and increase blood flow to the uterus and placenta, and the delivery of nutrients for fetal growth and survival. In pregnant rats, dietary arginine deficiency causes IUGR and increases fetal death and perinatal mortality, whereas dietary arginine supplementation reverses this. Human IUGR is associated with impaired NO synthesis, and eNOS activity in umbilical vein endothelial cells, but maternal arginine supplements have produced inconclusive results. We hypothesised that maternal arginine supplementation (MAS) in the pig (a species with naturally occurring IUGR), during late gestation, when placental angiogenesis and vascularity increase, would increase birth and placental weights. Large White (LW) and Landrace (LR) gilts (n = 285) and sows (n = 326), were fed either a control or arginine supplemented (+25 g/d arginine, Nutreco Progenos premix) diet (2.5 kg/d) in late gestation (d75-term at ~114 days). Number born, born alive, still born and mummified, birth weight and d10 weight of progeny were measured. Data were analysed using Univariate ANOVA. MAS in late gestation in gilts and sows reduced the number of still born (Con: 1.17 ± 0.13 piglets/litter; Arg: 0.84 ± 0.09 piglets/litter; P = 0.046). In LW gilts, MAS increased birth weight (Con: 1.21 ± 0.05kg; Arg: 1.34 ± 0.05kg; P < 0.05), and litter birth weight (Con: 13.38 ± 0.72 kg; Arg: 15.27 ± 0.73 kg; P < 0.05). MAS also increased birth weight in LW (Con: 1.17 ± 0.06 kg; Arg: 1.30 ± 0.06 kg; P < 0.05) and LR (Con: 1.47 ± 0.05 kg; Arg: 1.60 ± 0.05 kg; P < 0.05) sows, and reduced still borns in LW sows (Con: 1.12 ± 0.14 piglets/litter; Arg: 0.77 ± 0.09 piglets/litter; P < 0.05). MAS in late gestation improves pregnancy outcomes in terms of piglet survival and birth weight, in LW and LR gilts and sows. MAS during critical periods of placental development may enhance placental-fetal blood flow and nutrient transfer, thereby improving fetal growth and survival.

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Nutrient partitioning during adolescent pregnancy

Reproduction ◽

10.1530/rep.0.1220347 ◽

2001 ◽

pp. 347-357 ◽

Cited By ~ 78

Author(s):

J Wallace ◽

D Bourke ◽

P Da Silva ◽

R Aitken

Keyword(s):

Birth Weight ◽

Pregnancy Outcome ◽

Adolescent Mothers ◽

Fetal Growth ◽

Adverse Pregnancy Outcome ◽

Late Gestation ◽

Gravid Uterus ◽

Maternal Body ◽

Increased Risk ◽

Nutrient Partitioning

Human adolescent mothers have an increased risk of delivering low birth weight and premature infants with high mortality rates within the first year of life. Studies using a highly controlled adolescent sheep paradigm demonstrate that, in young growing females, the hierarchy of nutrient partitioning during pregnancy is altered to promote growth of the maternal body at the expense of the gradually evolving nutrient requirements of the gravid uterus and mammary gland. Thus, overnourishing adolescent dams throughout pregnancy results in a major restriction in placental mass, and leads to a significant decrease in birth weight relative to adolescent dams receiving a moderate nutrient intake. High maternal intakes are also associated with increased rates of spontaneous abortion in late gestation and, for ewes delivering live young, with a reduction in the duration of gestation and in the quality and quantity of colostrum accumulated prenatally. As the adolescent dams are of equivalent age at the time of conception, these studies indicate that nutritional status during pregnancy rather than biological immaturity predisposes the rapidly growing adolescents to adverse pregnancy outcome. Nutrient partitioning between the maternal body and gravid uterus is putatively orchestrated by a number of endocrine hormones and, in this review, the roles of both maternal and placental hormones in the regulation of placental and fetal growth in this intriguing adolescent paradigm are discussed. Impaired placental growth, particularly of the fetal component of the placenta, is the primary constraint to fetal growth during late gestation in the overnourished dams and nutritional switch-over studies indicate that high nutrient intakes during the second two-thirds of pregnancy are most detrimental to pregnancy outcome. In addition, it may be possible to alter the nutrient transport function of the growth-restricted placenta in that the imposition of a catabolic phase during the final third of pregnancy in previously rapidly growing dams results in a modest increase in lamb birth weight.

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Infant birth weight is related to maternal arterial oxygenation at high altitude

Journal of Applied Physiology ◽

10.1152/jappl.1982.52.3.695 ◽

1982 ◽

Vol 52 (3) ◽

pp. 695-699 ◽

Cited By ~ 72

Author(s):

L. G. Moore ◽

S. S. Rounds ◽

D. Jahnigen ◽

R. F. Grover ◽

J. T. Reeves

Keyword(s):

Birth Weight ◽

High Altitude ◽

Fetal Growth ◽

Growth Retardation ◽

Hemoglobin Concentration ◽

Late Gestation ◽

Fetal Growth Retardation ◽

Arterial Oxygenation ◽

Maternal Characteristics ◽

Infant Birth

Infant birth weight is reported to decrease at high altitude as a reulst of fetal growth retardation (McCullough, Reeves, and Liljegren. Arch. Environ, Health. 32: 36--39, 1977) but not all babies born at high altitude are small. We hypothesized that maternal characteristics acting to lower arterial O2 content would contribute to smaller infant birth weight. To test this hypothesis, we measured arterial oxygenation serially during pregnancy and again postpartum in 44 residents of Leadville, CO (elevation 3,100 m). We identified three maternal characteristics--ventilation, hemoglobin concentration, and smoking habits--that were related to the birth weight of the offspring. Mothers of smaller babies (less than 2,900 g) compared to mothers of larger babies (greater than 3,500 g) were characterized by hypoventilation, no change or a decrease in ventilation and arterial O2 saturation from early to late gestation, and a falling hemoglobin concentration that combined to lower arterial O2 content in the 3rd trimester. Maternal smoking at 3,100 m was associated with a two to threefold greater reduction in infant birth weight (-546 g) than reported from sea level. Thus, maternal arterial oxygenation during pregnancy may be important for predicting fetal growth retardation and the process of adaptation to high altitude.

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SEVERE FEED RESTRICTION OF THE SOW DURING LATE PREGNANCY

Canadian Journal of Animal Science ◽

10.4141/cjas78-006 ◽

1978 ◽

Vol 58 (1) ◽

pp. 43-48 ◽

Cited By ~ 7

Author(s):

J. I. ELLIOT ◽

G. A. LODGE

Keyword(s):

Birth Weight ◽

Feed Intake ◽

Weight Change ◽

Inverse Relationship ◽

Late Pregnancy ◽

Late Gestation ◽

Feed Restriction ◽

Weight Changes ◽

Lactation Performance ◽

Short Term

Thirty-two Yorkshire sows were given either 0.45 or 2.27 kg feed/day from day 100 of gestation to farrowing to determine whether short-term restriction of feed intake during late gestation affected either the reproduction or lactation performance of the sows. Level of feeding from day 100 of gestation significantly affected prefarrowing weight change (P <.01) and the net weight change from day 100 to immediately postfarrowing (P <.01). An inverse relationship in the pattern of prefarrowing and lactation weight changes was observed. Restriction of prefarrowing feed intake did not significantly affect litter size, birth weight or weaning weight of the piglets. However, reduced intake prefarrowing was counterbalanced by increased intake postfarrowing with no overall saving in feed.

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Peri-Conceptional undernutrition in twin bearing ewes: Effect on early fetal growth and birth weight

Ecosistemas y Recursos Agropecuarios ◽

10.19136/era.a4n12.1293 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 4 (12) ◽

pp. 419

Author(s):

Ricardo Vicente-Pérez ◽

Yolanda Osorio-Marín ◽

María De los Angeles López-Baca ◽

Leonel Avendaño-Reyes ◽

Abelardo Correa-Calderón ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Birth Weight ◽

Body Condition ◽

Fetal Growth ◽

Body Condition Score ◽

Control Group ◽

Maternal Body ◽

Crown Rump Length ◽

Condition Score ◽

Nutritional Restriction ◽

Mating Time

A total of 48 Katahdin x Pelibuey multiparous ewes were used to evaluate the e ect of nutritional restriction (40 %) before (30 d, RT), after (50 d, TR) or both periods (80 d, RR) compared with a control group on maternal body status, early fetal growth and lamb birth weights. Only twin bearing ewes were selected at d 50 of pregnancy for fetal measurements by ultrasonography and record of birth weight. Compared with control ewes, lower (p < 0.05) weight and body condition score had RT and RR ewes at mating time, likewise, TR and RR ewes at d 50 post-conception. There were mainly di erences between fetuses from control and RT ewes, being higher (p < 0.05) the vesicular, abdominal and fetal area, as well as crown-rump length and birth weight for RT fetuses. In conclusion, preconception undernutrition positively altered the early fetal growth and lamb birth weights in hair ewes pregnant with twins.

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Food intake dependent and independent effects of heat stress on lactation and mammary gland development

10.1101/2020.04.03.024679 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Yao Xiao ◽

Jason M. Kronenfeld ◽

Benjamin J. Renquist

Keyword(s):

Heat Stress ◽

Mammary Gland ◽

Food Intake ◽

Milk Production ◽

Mammary Gland Development ◽

Heat Exposure ◽

Mammary Development ◽

Late Gestation ◽

Independent Effects ◽

Gland Development

ABSTRACTWith a growing population, a reliable food supply is increasingly important. Heat stress reduces livestock meat and milk production. Genetic selection of high producing animals increases endogenous heat production, while climate change increases exogenous heat exposure. Both sources of heat exacerbate the risk of heat-induced depression of production. Rodents are valuable models to understand mechanisms conserved across species. Heat exposure suppresses feed intake across homeothermic species including rodents and production animal species. We assessed the response to early-mid lactation or late gestation heat exposure on milk production and mammary gland development/function, respectively. Using pair-fed controls we experimentally isolated the food intake dependent and independent effects of heat stress on mammary function and mass. Heat exposure (35°C, relative humidity 50%) decreased daily food intake. When heat exposure occurred during lactation, hypophagia accounted for approximately 50% of the heat stress induced hypogalactia. Heat exposure during middle to late gestation suppressed food intake, which was fully responsible for the lowered mammary gland weight of dams at parturition. However, the impaired mammary gland function in heat exposed dams measured by metabolic rate and lactogenesis could not be explained by depressed food consumption. In conclusion, mice recapitulate the depressed milk production and mammary gland development observed in dairy species while providing insight regarding the role of food intake. This opens the potential to apply genetic, experimental and pharmacological models unique to mice to identify the mechanism by which heat is limiting animal production.Summary StatementsThis study demonstrates that heat stress decreases lactation and mammary development through food intake dependent and independent mechanisms.

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