Sea Peoples and Land Peoples, 1250 BC–1100 BC

The Great Sea ◽  
2011 ◽  
Author(s):  
David Abulafia
Keyword(s):  
Eighteenth Century ◽  
Red Sea ◽  
Eastern Mediterranean ◽  
Western Mediterranean ◽  
Archaeological Evidence ◽  
Archaeological Investigation ◽  
The Bible ◽  
The Subject ◽  
Sea Peoples ◽  
The Hill

Both the fall of Troy and the Sea Peoples have been the subject of a vast literature. They were part of a common series of developments that affected the entire eastern Mediterranean and possibly the western Mediterranean too. Troy had been transformed at the end of the eighteenth century BC with the building of the most magnificent of the cities to stand on the hill of Hisarlık: Troy VI , which lasted, with many minor reconstructions, into the thirteenth century BC . The citadel walls were nine metres thick, or more; there were great gates and a massive watchtower, a memory of which may have survived to inspire Homer; there were big houses on two floors, with courtyards. The citadel was the home of an elite that lived in some style, though without the lavish accoutrements of their contemporaries in Mycenae, Pylos or Knossos. Archaeological investigation of the plain beneath which then gave directly on to the seashore suggests the existence of a lower town about seven times the size of the citadel, or around 170,000 square metres, roughly the size of the Hyksos capital at Avaris. One source of wealth was horses, whose bones begin to appear at this stage; Homer’s Trojans were famous ‘horse-tamers’, hippodamoi, and even if he chose this word to fit his metre, it matches the archaeological evidence with some precision. In an age when great empires were investing in chariots, and sending hundreds of them to perdition at the battle of Kadesh (or, according to the Bible, in the depths of the Red Sea), horse-tamers were certainly in demand. Opinion divided early on the identity of the Trojans. Claiming descent from Troy, the ancient Romans knew for sure that they were not just a branch of the Greek people. Homer, though, made them speak Greek. The best chance of an answer comes from their pottery. The pottery of Troy is not just Trojan; it belongs to a wider culture that spread across parts of Anatolia.

scholarly journals The migrations of the Sea Peoples circa 1200 BC according to written sources, narrative tradition and archaeology

2020 ◽  
Vol 3 (5) ◽  
pp. 1233-1248
Author(s):  
A. V. Safronov
Keyword(s):  
Bronze Age ◽  
Eastern Mediterranean ◽  
Western Mediterranean ◽  
Archaeological Data ◽  
Ancient Egyptian ◽  
Narrative Tradition ◽  
North Eastern ◽  
Sea Peoples ◽  
The Rich ◽  
Written Sources

The article deals with the Sea Peoples’ migrations at the beginning of 12th century BC. It is based on ancient Egyptian written sources, archaeological data and Greek narrative tradition. The author tries to reconstruct the general stages of Late Bronze Age ethnical movements in the Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean at the end of the 13th – beginning the 12th centuries BC. The author shows that the Sea peoples’ movement was not homogeneous. Moreover, not all the Sea Peoples can be considered as migrants. The tribes of Shekelesh and Weshesh were the typical sea raiders who plundered the rich centres of the Eastern Mediterranean. The possible reason for the Peleset, Theker and Turša migration seems to be the war which devastated their homeland in north-eastern Anatolia between 1208/1203 и 1195 BC. The appearance of the Denyen in Sea Peoples’ movement must be connected with the destructions of Mycenaean centres in Southern Greece circa 1200 BC. Their inhabitants left their homeland and migrated to the different regions of the Aegean, Anatolia, Eastern and Western Mediterranean. The Sea Peoples’ migrations were only the first stage of global ethnic movements in Eurasia at the end of the Bronze Age which totally changed the ethnopolitical map of Southern Europe, Anatolia and Eastern Mediterranean.

International and Domestic Maritime Trade in the Ottoman Empire during the 18th Century

1992 ◽  
Vol 24 (2) ◽  
pp. 189-206 ◽  
Author(s):  
Daniel Panzac
Keyword(s):  
Ottoman Empire ◽  
Red Sea ◽  
Black Sea ◽  
Major Part ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Eastern Mediterranean ◽  
Decisive Role ◽  
Western Mediterranean ◽  
The Black Sea ◽  
Old World

A glance at a map shows what an important role the sea played in the vast empire of the Ottomans in the 18th century, linking as it did the three continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa that made up the Old World. The Ottoman Empire dominated not only the eastern Mediterranean but also the major part of the southern shore of the western Mediterranean, the Black Sea—a “Turkish lake” until the 1780s—the Red Sea, and part of the Arab/Persian Gulf.Geography gave the sea a decisive role in the trade that took place in the Ottoman Empire both internationally and domestically.

scholarly journals Seasonal dynamics of phytoplankton and bacterioplankton at the ultra-oligotrophic southeastern Mediterranean Sea

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Tom Reich ◽  
Tal Ben-Ezra ◽  
Natalya Belkin ◽  
Anat Tsemel ◽  
Dikla Aharonovich ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Mediterranean Sea ◽  
Red Sea ◽  
Seasonal Dynamics ◽  
Eastern Mediterranean ◽  
Western Mediterranean ◽  
Bacterial Productivity ◽  
The North ◽  
Chemical Conditions ◽  
South Pacific Gyre ◽  
Physical And Chemical

The Eastern Mediterranean Sea (EMS) is an ultra-oligotrophic, enclosed basin strongly impacted by regional and global anthropogenic stressors. Here, we describe the annual (2018-19) dynamics of phyto- and bacterioplankton (abundances, pigments and productivity) in relation to the physical and chemical conditions in the photic water column at the offshore EMS water (Station THEMO-2, ~1,500m depth, 50km offshore). Annual patterns in phytoplankton biomass (as chlorophyll a), primary and bacterial productivity differed between the mixed winter (January-April) and the thermally stratified (May-December) periods. Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus numerically dominated the picophytoplankton populations, with each clade revealing different temporal and depth patterns, while pico-eukaryotes (primarily haptophytes) were less abundant, yet likely contributed significant biomass. Integrated primary productivity (~32 gC m-2 y-1) was lower compared with other well-studied oligotrophic locations, including the north Atlantic and Pacific (HOT and BATS observatories), the western Mediterranean (DYFAMED observatory) and the Red Sea, and was on-par with the ultra-oligotrophic South Pacific Gyre. In contrast, integrated bacterial production (~11 gC m-2 y-1) was similar to other oligotrophic locations. Phytoplankton seasonal dynamics were reminiscent of those at BATS and the Red Sea, suggesting an observable effect of winter mixing in this ultra-oligotrophic location. These results highlight the ultra-oligotrophic conditions in the EMS and provide, for the first time in this region, a full-year baseline and context to ocean observatories in the region.

Paradise Finding Aids

2019 ◽  
pp. 209-228
Author(s):  
Nicholas Allred
Keyword(s):  
Eighteenth Century ◽  
Paradise Lost ◽  
Pivotal Role ◽  
Market Penetration ◽  
The Bible ◽  
Critical Practices ◽  
Finding Aids ◽  
The Subject

Discusses early verbal indices or concordances to Paradise Lost, especially the expanding series in the editions printed by Jacob Tonson from 1695 to 1711, frequently reprinted in later eighteenth-century editions, and Alexander Cruden’s concordance published in 1741. Examining these indexes not only illuminates “the habits of reading involved in making and using them” but also “can disclose structures in the poem that we have perhaps forgotten how to see, and even throw our contemporary critical practices into relief.” Tonson’s 1695 “Table” of generic ingredients, expanded into the subject “Index” of 1711, was composed mainly of descriptions (which disappear as a separate heading), “underscore[ing] how a finding aid can enlist the print codex to circumvent the epic’s basic ordering principle: the story”; instead, the index “processes epic into something like lyric.” Employing book and line numbers rather than page numbers, Alexander Cruden’s 1741 Verbal Index to Milton’s Paradise Lost assumes that Paradise Lost, “like the Bible, had achieved enormous market penetration: the verbal index was designed for readers already equipped with copies in scores of different editions.” Thus “the verbal index helped Paradise Lost not only enter the lexicon,” as it “allowed readers to make the poem’s language their own,” but also helped to “define the lexicon through its pivotal role in Samuel Johnson’s Dictionary.”

Ottoman Suakin 1541–1865: Lost and Found

2009 ◽  
Author(s):  
MICHAEL MALLINSON ◽  
LAURENCE SMITH ◽  
COLIN BREEN ◽  
WES FORSYTHE ◽  
JACKE PHILLIPS
Keyword(s):  
East Asia ◽  
Red Sea ◽  
South East Asia ◽  
Archaeological Evidence ◽  
Ottoman History ◽  
Short Period ◽  
Lost And Found ◽  
The Subject ◽  
Sea Ports ◽  
Archaeological Project

The island town of Suakin (Ott. Sevvakin) was one of the major Red Sea ports and, for a short period, the capital of the Ottoman eyelet of Habes. It lies 60 kilometres south of present-day Port Sudan, and has recently been the subject of a Sudanese-British collaborative archaeological project focusing on three main areas of research: archaeological study of the development of the settlement, architectural study of the ruins, and the future protection of the place as a cultural site. This chapter summarises the aspects of the project reflecting Suakin's Ottoman history. The study identifies material confirming the activities that led to this prosperity, namely trade. The archaeological evidence recovered in the recent excavations does support the existence of a wide-ranging trade network into which Suakin was linked from the earlier Ottoman period, covering neighbouring areas but also extending to east and south-east Asia.

scholarly journals Divine Logos and Translation among Iberian Muslims: From Ibn Ḥazm (d. 456H/1064CE) to Aḥmad al-Ḥanafī (d. 1049H/1650CE)

Religions ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 12 (11) ◽  
pp. 946
Author(s):  
Mònica Colominas Aparicio
Keyword(s):  
Western Mediterranean ◽  
Recent Past ◽  
Comprehensive Overview ◽  
Present Contribution ◽  
Religious Traditions ◽  
Scriptural Interpretation ◽  
The Bible ◽  
God's Word ◽  
The Subject ◽  
Ibn Hazm

Like other religious traditions, Islam has accommodated notions of the divine logos. The actual elaboration of these notions has been heavily dependent on how the translation of God’s word and commandments to humans were understood as an object of intra-community debate, as well as in polemics with non-Muslims (inter-community debate). These two debates converged in the Muslim critique of the translation, transmission, and interpretation of the divine logos by Jews and Christians in their scriptures, although such convergence took different forms in different historical settings. The present contribution focuses on several examples of the engagement of Muslims with the Bible in the medieval Iberian Peninsula and in exile. The choice of authors and works ranges from the 11th-century Andalusī scholar Ibn Ḥazm to the exile Aḥmad al-Ḥanafī (d. 1049H/1650CE). It is nevertheless not intended as a comprehensive overview of Muslim approaches from the Western Mediterranean region. The objective is rather to discuss several aspects associated with the translation of the divine logos in polemics as a tool of identity that is intimately related to Muslim practices of exegesis and transmission of the Jewish and Christian writings. Particular attention is directed toward the broader issue of how notions of the translation of God’s word have been informed by language practices within contexts of inter-religious contact and competition (either between existing social bodies or as references to a relatively recent past). A preliminary look at Muslim modes of scriptural interpretation suggests that translation and exegesis, as well as the ways in which Muslims understood these practices as performed by non-Muslims, were part of a tradition that took final form and meaning, and that was subject to change when re-enacted in specific contexts. Any understanding of the subject must be read against the backdrop of Muslim configurations of knowledge within the local communities, as combined with tradition.

Historical Fragments’ Mobile Echo

Transfers ◽  
2017 ◽  
Vol 7 (2) ◽  
pp. 115-119 ◽  
Author(s):  
Susan E. Bell ◽  
Kathy Davis
Keyword(s):  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Twentieth Century ◽  
Eighteenth Century ◽  
Cultural Revolution ◽  
Ming Dynasty ◽  
Third Century ◽  
Refugee Crisis ◽  
The Third ◽  
Opium War ◽  
The Subject

Translocation – Transformation is an ambitious contribution to the subject of mobility. Materially, it interlinks seemingly disparate objects into a surprisingly unified exhibition on mobile histories and heritages: twelve bronze zodiac heads, silk and bamboo creatures, worn life vests, pressed Pu-erh tea, thousands of broken antique teapot spouts, and an ancestral wooden temple from the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) used by a tea-trading family. Historically and politically, the exhibition engages Chinese stories from the third century BCE, empires in eighteenth-century Austria and China, the Second Opium War in the nineteenth century, the Chinese Cultural Revolution of the mid-twentieth century, and today’s global refugee crisis.

The Laws of Hammurabi

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Pamela Barmash
Keyword(s):  
Eighteenth Century ◽  
Roman Law ◽  
Intellectual Culture ◽  
Biblical Law ◽  
Intellectual Tradition ◽  
Legal Principles ◽  
Copernican Revolution ◽  
The Subject ◽  
The Law

The Laws of Hammurabi is one of the earliest law codes, dating from the eighteenth century BCE Mesopotamia (ancient Iraq). It is the culmination of a tradition in which scribes would demonstrate their legal flair by composing statutes on a repertoire of traditional cases, articulating what they deemed just and fair. The book describes how the scribe of the Laws of Hammurabi advanced beyond earlier scribes in composing statutes that manifest systematization and implicit legal principles. The scribe inserted the statutes into the structure of a royal inscription, skillfully reshaping the genre. This approach allowed the king to use the law code to demonstrate that Hammurabi had fulfilled the mandate to guarantee justice enjoined upon him by the gods, affirming his authority as king. This tradition of scribal improvisation on a set of traditional cases continued outside of Mesopotamia, influencing biblical law and the law of the Hittite Empire and perhaps shaping Greek and Roman law. The Laws of Hammurabi is also a witness to the start of another stream of intellectual tradition. It became a classic text and the subject of formal commentaries, marking a Copernican revolution in intellectual culture.

Clausewitz and the Eighteenth-Century Context of Partisan Warfare

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Sibylle Scheipers
Keyword(s):  
Eighteenth Century ◽  
Intellectual Development ◽  
Small Wars ◽  
System P ◽  
The Subject ◽  
Partisan Warfare

Clausewitz was an ardent analyst of partisan warfare. In 1810 and 1811, he lectured at the Berlin Kriegsschule, the war academy, on the subject of small wars. Clausewitz’s lectures focused on the tactical nature of small wars. However, the eighteenth-century context was by no means irrelevant for Clausewitz’s further intellectual development. On the contrary, he extrapolated from his analysis of the tactical nature of small wars their strategic potential, as well as their exemplary nature for the study of war as such. The partisan, in Clausewitz’s eyes, possessed exemplary qualities in that he acted autonomously and, in doing so, had to draw upon all his human faculties. As such, he was the paradigmatic antagonist to the regular soldier who displayed a ‘cog mentality’ fostered by the Frederickian military system.

Ecology and Imperium: State Formation in Early Colonial Bengal c. 1765–1800

2020 ◽  
Vol 47 (2) ◽  
pp. 263-281
Author(s):  
Baijayanti Chatterjee
Keyword(s):  
Eighteenth Century ◽  
State Formation ◽  
East India Company ◽  
Remote Areas ◽  
Tribal Communities ◽  
Early Colonial ◽  
English East India Company ◽  
The Hill ◽  
Outlying Regions ◽  
Power And Authority

This article looks at the process of state formation in Bengal in the second half of the eighteenth century when the English East India Company emerged as the paramount authority in the province. The article argues that compared with the previous regime of the Nazims who were content in exercising a loose sovereignty over the outlying regions of Bengal, the Company showed greater initiative in conquering and pacifying the remote areas of the province. In terms of its ecology, the province of Bengal could be divided into three distinct zones: the plains, the hills and the delta. The process of state formation varied in these three distinct eco-zones. While it was easy for the Company to establish its control over the Bengal plains, it became increasingly difficult for them to establish their power and authority in the hill forests (home to autonomous tribal communities who resented and resisted British interference) and in the deltaic tracts where the maze of rivers provided safe refuge and a means of escape to the Magh pirates and every other state fugitive. This article is an account of the Company’s struggles to establish its supremacy in Bengal, but it also looks at the resistance offered by autonomous tribal groups to retain and preserve their independence. Finally, this article attempts to link ecology with the process of state formation in early colonial Bengal.

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