The Coldest Place on Earth

2010 ◽  
Author(s):  
David Fisher
Keyword(s):  
Glass Tube ◽  
Second Law Of Thermodynamics ◽  
Food Preservation ◽  
Heat Flows ◽  
Northern Latitudes ◽  
Giant Leap ◽  
History Of ◽  
Entire History ◽  
Heike Kamerlingh Onnes ◽  
First Time

Suddenly, at 7.30 P.M. on July 10, 1908, the coldest place on earth—the coldest place in the entire history of the earth—was inside a small glass tube in a messy laboratory in Groningen, the Netherlands, where the temperature was a cool 269 degrees below freezing. That’s centigrade; it would be minus 452° Fahrenheit. Inside the tube were 60 cc of liquid helium, produced for the first time in history by a Dutch physicist today virtually and unfairly unknown to the general public, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes—unfairly unknown, for unlike the results discussed in the last two chapters on MORB geochemistry, this feat of engineering physics has had profound practical consequences. The utilization of fire was the first giant leap for mankind, but its opposite, the search for cold, has been an ongoing human activity through recorded history. (Actually, there is no such thing as cold; there are only lesser amounts of heat. Absolute zero, minus 273° centigrade, is unattainable, as “explained” by a complex quantum theory argument, and there are no minus numbers on the Absolute, or Kelvin, scale.) But in practical terms, no one cared, the important thing was to get ice for food preservation through the hot summers, and until nearly a hundred years ago the only way to do that was to bring it down from the high northern latitudes or, in the in-between latitudes, to store the winter’s ice underground. By the last quarter of the nineteenth century, some progress began to be made in utilizing that marvelous insight into nature, the Second Law of Thermodynamics, to bring some sort of mechanical cooling into people’s lives. The law can be stated in various ways, but for this purpose the simplest is that heat flows from hot to cold. What could be simpler? And yet it has profound consequences. When you want a cold drink, you put in ice cubes and the heat flows from the warm scotch to the cold ice cubes, cooling down the scotch. But as the ice melts, it dilutes the scotch, which is a problem.

scholarly journals Name-strategies and antropoiesis discourse in the history of philosophy

2020 ◽  
Vol 4 (2) ◽  
pp. 7-16
Author(s):  
S. G. Selivanova
Keyword(s):  
Interdisciplinary Studies ◽  
The Self ◽  
The Other ◽  
History Of Thought ◽  
History Of ◽  
Definite Structure ◽  
Entire History ◽  
The Subject ◽  
First Time ◽  
Modern Era

Onomapoiesis strategies actualize the distinctive sphere of human practice, which is a direct continuation of autopoiesis and anthropoiesis. They atomize and ontologize the Self by restricting it to definite structure-morphologic clusters of language expressions, such as personal name and pronoun. As a result, we have two completely different tactics: naming tactics and pronoun tactics, or ego-strategies. These practices refer to diverse complexes and can’t be considered within one species, each of them constitutes the autonomous entity. Any self-naming, self-calling, and indication through the name or pronoun, correlates with the innate eager and desire of a person to express himself, the world, and other(s). Thus, the anthropology of naming turns out to be the part of philosophical discourse, implicitly passing through the entire history of thought. Primarily, the philosophy of Stoics belongs to this kind of boundary marks, within the framework of which the distinction between the name and the pronoun was made for the first time. Plus, the discovery of deixis belongs to them. In the context of the modern era of philosophy, the doctrine of Rene Descartes is a kind of counterpoint when the Self, the Ego, first reveals itself to consciousness. Further, there is a fission inside the indicated complexes: I and not-I, My and not-My, I and You, We and They, I and the Other, I and Others manifest themselves inside the pronoun practices of naming. Their contents and meanings become the subject of philosophy and linguistic, as well as interdisciplinary studies. There are two conceptually framed strategies within one complex, which illustrates the praxeological character of the study: the Heideggerian Dasein and the polyphonic Ego presented by Bakhtin M.M. The first one unfolds as a monologue and first-person speech; the latter in turn, as a dialog, which expresses the subject’s being as a complicity in the polyphony of voices of the Other(s).

scholarly journals Chiefs of the Gendarme District in Siberia: Social Portrait

2021 ◽  
Vol 20 (1) ◽  
pp. 94-103
Author(s):  
Petr P. Rumyantsev
Keyword(s):  
Central Government ◽  
Russian Empire ◽  
Research Projects ◽  
Aged People ◽  
The Social ◽  
History Of ◽  
Entire History ◽  
Last Stage ◽  
The Russian Empire ◽  
First Time

The Siberian gendarme district existed longer than all other gendarme districts in the Russian Empire – almost 70 years, and was liquidated at the beginning of the 20th century. Since there are no research projects aimed at the study of the social portrait of the leaders of this district until now, this problem was chosen as the focus of this article. The study is based on an analysis of the personnel and service records of gendarme officers kept in archives, many of them are newly discovered and published for the first time, and orders to the servicemen of the Gendarmerie Corps and legislative acts of the central government. The article concludes by arguing that in the entire history of the district only ten people held the position of the Chief, and the average term of their office was 5 years and 8 months. They were all middle-aged people, professional military, who for various reasons transferred to the gendarmerie service, for whom it was the main source of income. For all ten persons who held the post of district gendarmerie chief in Siberia, it was both the peak and the last stage of their gendarmerie career, the work associated with this post they carried out diligently and fulfilled all required duties.

The worst epidemics in human history

2020 ◽  
pp. 66-69
Author(s):  
Natalya Sakhno
Keyword(s):  
Avian Influenza ◽  
Death Rate ◽  
Fatal Outcome ◽  
The Philippines ◽  
Human History ◽  
The World ◽  
History Of ◽  
Entire History ◽  
Coronavirus Infection ◽  
First Time

Today the world's attention is focused on China, on the epidemic caused by coronavirus infection. As of the end of February, more than 77 thousand people affected with the disease had been registered, fatal outcome had been observed in more than 2500 cases. The Chinese authorities announced the beginning of a new epidemic at the very end of 2019. Moreover, if fatal outcomes were observed a month after the onset of mass incidence only within the country, then, in February, they went beyond its borders and were registered in Japan, Taiwan, South Korea, Iran, the Philippines, France and Italy. It is noteworthy that China became a source of the spread of the epidemic process not for the first time. So, in 2002 it was in this country, in Guangdong, that an outbreak of SARS was recorded, and in 1997, avian influenza spread from Hong Kong around the world. To tell the truth, the death rate from these diseases did not exceed thousands of people in both cases, and in the case of bird flu (or avian influenza), development of the disease was observed only in people eating chicken meat. It should be noted that in the entire history of the development of mankind, more people died as a result of epidemics and pandemics, than in all wars combined. Let us recall the worst epidemics in the history of mankind, the victims of which were millions of people.

scholarly journals Nicholas Hans and the assessment of Soviet school policy of the Russian pedagogical émigré at the turn of 1920’s – 1930’s

2018 ◽  
pp. 118-126
Author(s):  
Oleg Efimovich Osovskiy ◽  
Vera Petrovna Kirzhaeva
Keyword(s):  
English Language ◽  
School Policy ◽  
Soviet School ◽  
The Social ◽  
History Of ◽  
Entire History ◽  
Pedagogical Research ◽  
First Time ◽  
New Situation

This article reviews the problem of perception and assessment of the process of school building in USSR by the Russian pedagogical émigré at the turn of 1920’s – 1930’s. Having set the goal of creating the Russian foreign school, pedagogues and leaders of the social-pedagogical movement took a close eye on what was happening to the school homeward, assessed it with critical objectivity, highlighting the positive changes and pointing at dangerous tendencies. These issues are the focus of attention in the articles of Sergius Hessen, N. F. Novozhilov, A. L. Bem and N. A. Hans in the émigré pedagogical periodicals. Using the principles of the traditional historical-pedagogical research, approaches of content analysis and case study, the author determine the methodology applied by Nicholas Hans for analyzing the Soviet educational policy and school system. The authors reveal the scholar’s position, according to which the characteristic to the entire history of national school antagonism between radical and autocratic traditions finds its continuation in the Soviet school,  that in turn, allows extrapolating the conclusions based on the development stages of prerevolutionary school towards new situation. N. A. Hans uses similar approach in preparation of works about the Soviet school policy, addressed to the English audience. For the first time the authors introduce into the scientific discourse a number of Russian and English language publications of N. A. Hans, a notable participant of the social-pedagogical process of Russian émigré community, but yet unfamiliar to Russian audience. Nicholas Hans was one of the few Russian émigré, who was able to integrate into the scientific educational space of the Great Britain and became a prominent pedagogue-comparativist.

scholarly journals “Troops without Banners”: History of 5th Infantry Corps of Russian Army during Reign of Nicholas I

2021 ◽  
pp. 249-271
Author(s):  
S. V. Andriainen
Keyword(s):  
Russian Empire ◽  
Military Operations ◽  
Crimean War ◽  
The Crimea ◽  
History Of ◽  
Entire History ◽  
The Russian Empire ◽  
The Moment ◽  
First Time

The history of the 5th Infantry Corps of the Russian Imperial Army in 1831—1853 is considered in the article. The novelty of the research lies in the fact that for the first time a comprehensive analysis of the entire history of the 5th Corps, from the moment of its formation to the beginning of the Crimean War, was carried out. The author notes that the 5th corps solved the widest range of problems. The question is raised that the 5th corps carried out the tasks of the strategic reserve of the Russian Empire on the southern borders. The role of corps units in construction work in the Crimea, participation in the landing forces on the Bosporus, military operations in the Caucasus and Transylvania are analyzed. The author notes that in the early 1830s the corps had a dubious reputation. In particular, the infantry regiments of the fifth corps were accused of “Polish spirit” and cowardice in the battles of the Russian-Polish war of 1830—1831. It is emphasized that the reputation of the corps in the eyes of Emperor Nicholas I was gradually improving. The author claims that since the 1840s, the 5th Corps was already a reliable army unit in the eyes of the emperor. The author argues that the involvement of the “bad reputation” corps in solving strategic problems demonstrates the limited resources of the Russian Empire in the 1830s and 1840s.

scholarly journals Poetic Structure and Arts of Prose in Modern Arabic Literature

2021 ◽  
Vol 4 ◽  
pp. 208-256
Author(s):  
Zakira Jahantab
Keyword(s):  
Arab World ◽  
Literary Text ◽  
Poetic Structure ◽  
Critical Theories ◽  
The Arts ◽  
History Of ◽  
Entire History ◽  
Modern Arabic ◽  
First Time ◽  
Modern Era

الأدب هو شكلٌ من أشكال التعبير عن مشاعر الإنسان وعواطفه، وهو أسلوبٌ من الأساليب التي يستخدمُها الإنسان لإفراغ هواجسِه وخواطره وعرض أفكاره بمساحة يخلقُها لنفسه من الحروف، ويُعرَفُ الأدب في كلِّ لغة من لغات الأرض بأنّه مجموعة النصوص التي كتبها الأدباء والشعراء حول العالم بهذه اللغة، وتختلف فنون الأدب في كلِّ اللغات؛ فمن الأدباء من يعبّر عن أفكاره ومشاعره شِعرًا، ومنهم من يعبّر عن ذلك نثرًا، وللنثر أنواعٌ أيضًا، وهذا التنوّع في هذه الفنون قائمٌ على الأدوات التي يمتلكها كلُّ كاتب، وعلى الميول الأدبيّة الخاصّة به، كما اتخذ الأدب في العصر الحديث في العالم العربي منحى جديدًا بدخول مجموعة من الفنون الأدبية العربية الجديدة على الأدب، لم تكن هذه الفنون معروفة من قبل أو سائدة عند الأدباء العرب، دخل الفنّ المسرحي النثري والشعري لأول مرة في تاريخ الأدب العربي كلِّه، فقد تطورت الدراسات النقدية في العصر الحديث و اكتشف النقاد عوالمَ أخرى في النص الأدبي العربي ورصدوا تطورات النص الأدبي عبر العصور، وفصَّلوا في المعجم اللغوي والدلالي في كلِّ نص أدبي، فمنحوا النقد مساحات إضافية ونظريّات نقدية جديدة لم تكن معروفة ومتداولة في عصور الأدب السابقة، وهذا المقال سيسلِّط الضوء على الأدب في العصر الحديث بفنونِه المختلفة. الكلمات المفاتيح: الأدب، العصر الحديث، مشاعر، نثرًا، الفنّ الشعري، ونظريّات نقدية. Abstract Literature is a form of expression of human feelings and emotions, and it is one of the methods that a person uses to express thoughts and present his ideas with a space that he creates for himself  from words, and literature is known in every language of the earth as the set of texts written by writers and poets around the world in the language, and the arts of literature differ in all languages; Some writers express his thoughts and feelings in poetry, and some express it in prose, and prose has types as well, and this diversity of art is based on the tools and on his own literary tendencies that each writer possesses, and literature in the modern era in the Arab world has taken a new turn with the recognization of new Arab literary arts to literature, these arts were not known before or prevalent among Arab writers. Theatrical prose and poetic art recognized for the first time in the entire history of Arab literature. The Studies of Criticism have developed in the modern era and critics discovered other worlds in the Arabic literary text and monitored the developments of the literary text through the ages and explained the linguistic and semantic lexicon in every literary text. These studies have given criticism additional areas and new critical theories that were not known and circulated in previous literary eras, and this article will highlight on literature in the modern era with its various arts. Keywords: Literature, modern era, emotions, prose, poetic art, critical theories.

scholarly journals The road to happiness is the way to suffering

2021 ◽  
Vol 122 ◽  
pp. 04007
Author(s):  
Marina Alexandrovna Kindzerskaya ◽  
Tatyana Ivanovna Marmazova ◽  
Stanislav Alexandrovich Ruzanov ◽  
Pyotr Alekseevich Kostin ◽  
Ilona Vladislavovna Tarasova
Keyword(s):  
Comparative Method ◽  
The Other ◽  
The Road ◽  
Systemic Analysis ◽  
Conscious Choice ◽  
History Of ◽  
Entire History ◽  
The One ◽  
First Time ◽  
The Way

The article deals with the problem of a person’s conscious choice between happiness and suffering. At first glance, happiness and suffering are two different paths, and one should choose which road to take. On the one hand, suffering is an obstacle on the way to oneself, to a happy existence. On the other hand, one chooses suffering and happiness willingly, happiness is proportionate to suffering. One should not forget that existence has no meaning if it brings merely pain and dissatisfaction, so it is very important to strive to be happy. Throughout the entire history of humanity, the problem of happiness and the search for the best way to be released from suffering is a pressing issue. The relevance of the problem is determined by the particular significance of the concepts under study, because every person’s natural desire, regardless of the era and area of residence, is to be happy and free. The concepts of “happiness” and “suffering” are not only philosophical but also sociocultural phenomena that expound the axiological and spiritual and moral aspects of human existence. The study features quotes from thinkers of different ages and cultures that to an extent engaged in interpreting the content of the phenomena of happiness and suffering. The purpose of the study is to expound the sociocultural content of the phenomena of “happiness” and “suffering”, their causes, and the conditions for coexistence. The main methods of the study are the method of systemic analysis, the comparative method, and the typological method. The novelty of the study consists in the fact that the authors examine the phenomena of “happiness” and “suffering” together for the first time. Although the phenomena are an integral part of human activity.

Poetic Structure and Arts of Prose in Modern Arabic Literature

2021 ◽  
Vol 4 (Special Issue) ◽  
pp. 208-256
Author(s):  
Zakira Jahantab
Keyword(s):  
Arab World ◽  
Literary Text ◽  
Poetic Structure ◽  
Critical Theories ◽  
The Arts ◽  
History Of ◽  
Entire History ◽  
Modern Arabic ◽  
First Time ◽  
Modern Era

Literature is a form of expression of human feelings and emotions, and it is one of the methods that a person uses to express thoughts and present his ideas with a space that he creates for himself from words, and literature is known in every language of the earth as the set of texts written by writers and poets around the world in the language, and the arts of literature differ in all languages; Some writers express his thoughts and feelings in poetry, and some express it in prose, and prose has types as well, and this diversity of art is based on the tools and on his own literary tendencies that each writer possesses, and literature in the modern era in the Arab world has taken a new turn with the recognization of new Arab literary arts to literature, these arts were not known before or prevalent among Arab writers. Theatrical prose and poetic art recognized for the first time in the entire history of Arab literature. The Studies of Criticism have developed in the modern era and critics discovered other worlds in the Arabic literary text and monitored the developments of the literary text through the ages and explained the linguistic and semantic lexicon in every literary text. These studies have given criticism additional areas and new critical theories that were not known and circulated in previous literary eras, and this article will highlight on literature in the modern era with its various arts.

scholarly journals German Editions of the “Formula of Concord” of the 16th century in the Collection of the Russian State Library

2019 ◽  
Vol 68 (4) ◽  
pp. 375-382
Author(s):  
Tatiana A. Dolgodrova
Keyword(s):  
Free Will ◽  
Cultural Values ◽  
16Th Century ◽  
Complete Collection ◽  
Russian State ◽  
History Of ◽  
Entire History ◽  
State Library ◽  
First Time ◽  
The City

The author considers the publications of the “Formula of Concord” (lat. Formula Concordiae), one of the principal symbolic books of Lutheranism. For the first time the article reveals part of the collections of the Russian State Library (RSL), containing within the displaced cultural values ten editions of the “Formula of Concord” in German, the first of them (Dresden, 1580, Shtekel and Berg Printers) is presented in four copies. The article traces the entire history of the monument, which is equal by dogmatic significance to the “Augsburg Confession” — the earliest exposition of the doctrinal statements of Lutheranism. “Book of Concord” was supposed to stop the strife between Orthodox Gnesiolutherans and Pro-Calvinist Melanchthonists that arose after Luther’s death, when his friend and associate Philip Melanchthon, inclined to Calvinism, became the head of Lutherans. In matters of faith, he showed pliability, which provoked conflicts. Jacob Andreae became the author of the concise version of Concordia. Martin Chemnitz took over the editorship of the article “On Free Will”, and David Khitreus, who was involved in the issues of Communion, joined the work. The first version of the “Formula of Concord” was completed in the summer of 1576 in the city of Torgau, where Elector Augustus of Saxony convened the theological Convention. After receiving comments and minor amendments, the document was solemnly signed in Berg on May 29, 1577.The author analyses the composition of the book. The original version in 12 articles was written in German, and then translated into Latin by Lucas Osiander. However, the desire to unite all Lutheran churches under the auspices of the new symbol did not succeed — the “Formula of Concord” received Church’s recognition only in the electorates of Saxony and some other areas.The study of all ten copies of “Concordia” from the RSL leads to the conclusion that this almost complete collection of all published editions of “Formula of Concord” gives a largely comprehensive view of them: demonstrates borrowings, imitations of the first edition (Dresden, 1580), as well as features and innovations of individual publications. Some of them are unique, for example, the personal copy of the Saxon elector Augustus or the illuminated copy belonged to the Dukes of Saxony. The article may be of interest to art historians, book historians, source researchers and museum workers.

Adam Zalužanský’s “De sexu plantarum” (1592): an early pioneering chapter on plant sexuality

2013 ◽  
Vol 40 (2) ◽  
pp. 244-256 ◽  
Author(s):  
Holger Funk
Keyword(s):  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
English Translation ◽  
History Of Botany ◽  
Main Work ◽  
Botanical History ◽  
History Of ◽  
The University ◽  
First Time

In the history of botany, Adam Zalužanský (d. 1613), a Bohemian physician, apothecary, botanist and professor at the University of Prague, is a little-known personality. Linnaeus's first biographers, for example, only knew Zalužanský from hearsay and suspected he was a native of Poland. This ignorance still pervades botanical history. Zalužanský is mentioned only peripherally or not at all. As late as the nineteenth century, a researcher would be unaware that Zalužanský’s main work Methodi herbariae libri tres actually existed in two editions from two different publishers (1592, Prague; 1604, Frankfurt). This paper introduces the life and work of Zalužanský. Special attention is paid to the chapter “De sexu plantarum” of Zalužanský’s Methodus, in which, more than one hundred years before the well-known De sexu plantarum epistola of R. J. Camerarius, the sexuality of plants is suggested. Additionally, for the first time, an English translation of Zalužanský’s chapter on plant sexuality is provided.

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