Crossing the Divide

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Robert E.B. Lucas
Keyword(s):  
Developing Countries ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Historical Context ◽  
Married Couples ◽  
Urban Migration ◽  
Population Movements ◽  
Rural And Urban ◽  
Prior Literature ◽  
Urban Rural ◽  
Nationally Representative

The magnitude, nature, causes, and consequences of population movements between rural and urban sectors of developing countries are examined. The prior literature is reviewed and is found to be limited in key dimensions. Evidence presented from a new database encompasses nationally representative data on seventy-five developing countries. Several measures of migration propensities are derived for the separate countries. The situation in each country is documented, both in historical context and following the time of enumeration. Rural-urban migrants enjoy major gains; those who do not move forego substantial, potential gains. Barriers to migrating are very real for disadvantaged groups. Migration among ethnolinguistic communities is a pervasive theme; the context in which each group lives is detailed. Upward mobility in incomes in towns is affirmed, and the departure of adults from rural homes raises the living standards of the family left behind, but consequent separation of married couples is endemic to particular societies. Reclassification of rural areas as urban is shown to be more important than net rural-urban moves in incremental urbanization and rural-urban moves are less permanent than normally portrayed. A contention of symmetry between rural-urban and urban-rural migration propensities is rejected, and indications that these twin movements result in sorting of labor by skills are not supported. Moreover, step and onward migration are not as common as popularly claimed. Previously neglected topics studied include autonomous migration by women, child migration, and networks at origin. Policies to limit rural-urban migration are questioned, and as climate change continues, planning for managed urban growth is vital.

Country-Specific Magnitudes of Migration between Rural and Urban Sectors

2021 ◽  
pp. 31-114
Author(s):  
Robert E.B. Lucas
Keyword(s):  
Rural Areas ◽  
Migration Rate ◽  
Urban Migration ◽  
Sufficient Data ◽  
Flow Rates ◽  
Men And Women ◽  
Migration Rates ◽  
Rural And Urban ◽  
Urban Rural ◽  
Rural Urban Migration

Across seventy-four countries, six migration propensities of men and women are tabulated in this chapter: notably, for gross and net, lifetime and five-year flow, rural-urban and urban-rural moves. China is purported to have the highest rate of rural-urban migration in recent history, but neither reliable estimates nor sufficient data to permit computations appear to be available. The conventional wisdom is that India has a low rural-urban migration rate, but our estimates contradict this claim. The five-year flow rates are only loosely correlated with lifetime movements. It is important to understand the situation in each country at the time of enumeration, and these specific circumstances are described in the second half of the chapter. Gross rural-urban migration rates increase at higher urbanization levels, but net rural-urban migration proves positive virtually everywhere. Yet a decomposition for twenty-two countries indicates that reclassification of rural areas as urban is far more important than net rural-urban moves in incremental urbanization.

scholarly journals Urban–rural disparity in cancer incidence in China, 2008–2012: a cross-sectional analysis of data from 36 cancer registers

BMJ Open ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (4) ◽  
pp. e042762
Author(s):  
Shuai Yuan ◽  
Shao-Hua Xie
Keyword(s):  
Cancer Incidence ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Incidence Rates ◽  
Cancer Type ◽  
Anatomic Site ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Rural And Urban Areas ◽  
Rural And Urban ◽  
Urban Rural

ObjectiveThe substantial differences in socioeconomic and lifestyle exposures between urban and rural areas in China may lead to urban–rural disparity in cancer risk. This study aimed to assess the urban–rural disparity in cancer incidence in China.MethodsUsing data from 36 regional cancer registries in China in 2008–2012, we compared the age-standardised incidence rates of cancer by sex and anatomic site between rural and urban areas. We calculated the rate difference and rate ratio comparing rates in rural versus urban areas by sex and cancer type.ResultsThe incidence rate of all cancers in women was slightly lower in rural areas than in urban areas, but the total cancer rate in men was higher in rural areas than in urban areas. The incidence rates in women were higher in rural areas than in urban areas for cancers of the oesophagus, stomach, and liver and biliary passages, but lower for cancers of thyroid and breast. Men residing in rural areas had higher incidence rates for cancers of the oesophagus, stomach, and liver and biliary passages, but lower rates for prostate cancer, lip, oral cavity and pharynx cancer, and colorectal cancer.ConclusionsOur findings suggest substantial urban–rural disparity in cancer incidence in China, which varies across cancer types and the sexes. Cancer prevention strategies should be tailored for common cancers in rural and urban areas.

Relating Household Consumption Expenditures to Road Traffic Fatalities: A Rural–Urban Study

2021 ◽  
pp. 036119812110332
Author(s):  
Ruchika Agarwala ◽  
Vinod Vasudevan
Keyword(s):  
Developing Countries ◽  
Traffic Safety ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Household Consumption ◽  
Household Expenditure ◽  
Traffic Fatality ◽  
Rural And Urban Areas ◽  
Rural And Urban ◽  
The Relationship

Research shows that traffic fatality risk is generally higher in rural areas than in urban areas. In developing countries, vehicle ownership and investments in public transportation typically increase with economic growth. These two factors together increase the vehicle population, which in turn affects traffic safety. This paper presents a study focused on the relationship of various factors—including household consumption expenditure data—with traffic fatality in rural and urban areas and thereby aims to fill some of the gaps in the literature. One such gap is the impacts of personal and non-personal modes of travel on traffic safety in rural versus urban areas in developing countries which remains unexplored. An exhaustive panel data modeling approach is adopted. One important finding of this study is that evidence exists of a contrasting relationship between household expenditure and traffic fatality in rural and urban areas. The relationship between household expenditure and traffic fatality is observed to be positive in rural areas and a negative in urban areas. Increases in most expenditure variables, such as fuel, non-personal modes of travel, and two-wheeler expenditures, are found to be associated with an increase in traffic fatality in rural areas.

RURAL–URBAN MIGRATION AND CHILD SURVIVAL IN URBAN BANGLADESH: ARE THE URBAN MIGRANTS AND POOR DISADVANTAGED?

2008 ◽  
Vol 40 (1) ◽  
pp. 83-96 ◽  
Author(s):  
M. MAZHARUL ISLAM ◽  
KAZI MD ABUL KALAM AZAD
Keyword(s):  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Urban Poor ◽  
Child Survival ◽  
Childhood Mortality ◽  
Policy Implications ◽  
Urban Migration ◽  
Under Five ◽  
Urban Migrants ◽  
Urban Rural

SummaryThis paper analyses the levels and trends of childhood mortality in urban Bangladesh, and examines whether children’s survival chances are poorer among the urban migrants and urban poor. It also examines the determinants of child survival in urban Bangladesh. Data come from the 1999–2000 Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey. The results indicate that, although the indices of infant and child mortality are consistently better in urban areas, the urban–rural differentials in childhood mortality have diminished in recent years. The study identifies two distinct child morality regimes in urban Bangladesh: one for urban natives and one for rural–urban migrants. Under-five mortality is higher among children born to urban migrants compared with children born to life-long urban natives (102 and 62 per 1000 live births, respectively). The migrant–native mortality differentials more-or-less correspond with the differences in socioeconomic status. Like childhood mortality rates, rural–urban migrants seem to be moderately disadvantaged by economic status compared with their urban native counterparts. Within the urban areas, the child survival status is even worse among the migrant poor than among the average urban poor, especially recent migrants. This poor–non-poor differential in childhood mortality is higher in urban areas than in rural areas. The study findings indicate that rapid growth of the urban population in recent years due to rural-to-urban migration, coupled with higher risk of mortality among migrant’s children, may be considered as one of the major explanations for slower decline in under-five mortality in urban Bangladesh, thus diminishing urban–rural differentials in childhood mortality in Bangladesh. The study demonstrates that housing conditions and access to safe drinking water and hygienic toilet facilities are the most critical determinants of child survival in urban areas, even after controlling for migration status. The findings of the study may have important policy implications for urban planning, highlighting the need to target migrant groups and the urban poor within urban areas in the provision of health care services.

Abstract 13706: Differences in the Distribution of Systolic Blood Pressure by Rural and Urban Residence

Circulation ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 142 (Suppl_3) ◽  
Author(s):  
Brittain Heindl ◽  
George Howard ◽  
Elizabeth A Jackson
Keyword(s):  
Blood Pressure ◽  
Systolic Blood Pressure ◽  
Racial Differences ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Census Bureau ◽  
Urban Group ◽  
Rural And Urban ◽  
Urban Rural ◽  
The Difference

Introduction: The incidence of stroke is higher in rural areas. Hypertension is the leading risk factor for stroke, but the difference in systolic blood pressure (SBP) for those living in rural and urban areas is unknown. Hypothesis: We hypothesized that rural residence is associated with higher SBP levels, and this difference is modified by race, sex, and United States (US) division. Methods: We analyzed 26,113 participants enrolled in the REasons for Geographic And Racial Differences in Stroke (REGARDS) Study, recruited between 2003 and 2007. Participants were grouped based on the Rural-Urban Commuting Area (RUCA) scheme into urban, large-rural, and small-isolated rural groups. Resting SBP was measured during the initial home visit. Differences in percentiles of SBP distribution were compared using multivariate models with adjustment for age, race, sex, and US Census Bureau division. Results: Of the participants, 20,976 (80.3%) were classified as urban, 3,020 (11.6%) as large-rural, and 2,137 (8.2%) as small-isolated rural, reflecting the distribution of the population. The large-rural group had a 0.09 mmHg higher mean SBP compared to the urban group (95% CI, 0.33 to 1.52 mmHg, p = 0.0023), but the difference in SBP at the 95th percentile between these groups was 3.23 mmHg (95% CI, 1.43 to 4.73 mmHg, p = 0.0006). A similar difference was present between the small-isolated rural and urban groups at the highest percentiles. No urban-rural interaction was observed by race, sex, or US division. However, large SBP differences were present between US divisions, especially at the highest percentiles. To illustrate, SBP at the 95th percentile was 9.51 mmHg higher in the East North Central division than in the Pacific (95% CI, 6.41 to 12.61 mmHg, p < 0.0001). Conclusions: Residence in a rural area is associated with higher SBP, with larger differences at the highest percentiles of distribution. SBP differences are present between US divisions, independent of urban-rural status.

Data Sources and Issues in Measurement

2021 ◽  
pp. 13-30
Author(s):  
Robert E.B. Lucas
Keyword(s):  
Rural Areas ◽  
Information Sources ◽  
Data Sources ◽  
Urban Migration ◽  
Urban Settlements ◽  
Urban Rural ◽  
Place Of Origin ◽  
Rural Urban Migration ◽  
Migrant Flow ◽  
Previous Location

This chapter details the data sources deployed and the approaches to deriving measures from them. National definitions of urban settlements vary but are demonstrated to match satellite imagery surprisingly well. Most selected sources ask if the place of origin was rural or urban, though in several censuses this is imputed on the nature of the location of origin, rejecting instances where locations prove too diverse; significant contrasts are not found between the two approaches. Those sources that ask place of birth show significantly lower lifetime migration from urban to rural areas than those reporting only location during childhood; their rural-urban migration propensities do not differ. Measures of migrant flow rates, return migration, and other temporary moves require interim location information. Sources reporting the previous location and duration of residence prove more useful than those asking location five years before. A contention of symmetry between rural-urban and urban-rural migration propensities is rejected.

scholarly journals Rural Accessibility, Rural Development, and Natural Disasters in Bangladesh

2019 ◽  
Vol 35 (3) ◽  
pp. 391-411 ◽  
Author(s):  
Saleh Ahmed ◽  
Elizabeth Eklund
Keyword(s):  
Developing Countries ◽  
Economic Development ◽  
Rural Development ◽  
Natural Disasters ◽  
Low Income ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
National Development ◽  
Cost Effective ◽  
Rural And Urban ◽  
Social And Economic Development

Rural accessibility means more than just reliable roads and cost-effective transportation networks. Rural accessibility is critical for achieving social and economic development in low-income developing countries such as Bangladesh where both rural and urban development are constrained by significant infrastructural deficiencies. It is also an important factor that determines the effects of natural disasters on these resource-constrained societies, since both disaster responses and sustainable development are compromised by poor rural accessibility. Using two contrasting case studies from Bangladesh, this article reveals the significance of improved rural accessibility on rural development and the effects of natural disasters on rural areas. The findings of this article suggest that the improvement of rural accessibility should be a top national development priority, since it increases the opportunities for sustainable social and economic development and reduces the adverse effects of natural disasters on the rural areas in developing countries such as Bangladesh.

scholarly journals Seasonality and household diets in Ethiopia

2015 ◽  
Vol 19 (10) ◽  
pp. 1723-1730 ◽  
Author(s):  
Kalle Hirvonen ◽  
Alemayehu Seyoum Taffesse ◽  
Ibrahim Worku Hassen
Keyword(s):  
Food Security ◽  
Energy Intake ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Dietary Diversity ◽  
Rural Households ◽  
Household Level ◽  
Rural And Urban ◽  
Per Capita ◽  
Nationally Representative

AbstractObjectiveTo revisit seasonality by assessing how household diets vary across agricultural seasons in rural and urban Ethiopia. The role of seasonality on the sources and intake of energy (per capita) and household dietary diversity score (HDDS) was analysed.DesignThe use of nationally representative household-level data collected each month over one year to study the seasonal changes in the sources and intake of energy and HDDS.SettingEleven regions of Ethiopia, including rural and urban settings.SubjectsTotal of 27 835 households were interviewed between July 2010 and July 2011 in all eleven regions of the country. On average each month saw 2300 household interviews, yielding nationally representative data for each calendar month.ResultsFor rural households, the mean daily per capita energy intake was 10 288 kJ (2459 kcal) in February (post-harvest period) and lower in the lean season: 9703 kJ (2319 kcal) in June (P<0·05) and 9552 kJ (2283 kcal) in July (P<0·001). HDDS for rural households was highest in February (6·73) and lowest in June (5·98; P<0·001) but high again in July (6·57). Urban energy intake was also lower in the lean season but HDDS varied less by season. Considerable seasonal variation was also found in energy sources in rural areas, less so in urban areas.ConclusionsHousehold diets in Ethiopia remain subjected to significant seasonal stress. HDDS and food security measured using energy intake do not always agree. Preferably, HDDS and energy intake data should be used together to assess food security.

Demographic and socioeconomic factors affecting infant mortality in Egypt

1990 ◽  
Vol 22 (4) ◽  
pp. 447-451 ◽  
Author(s):  
Hassan Y. Aly
Keyword(s):  
Infant Mortality ◽  
Socioeconomic Factors ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Factors Affecting ◽  
Rural And Urban Areas ◽  
Positive Effects ◽  
Rural And Urban ◽  
Reduce Infant Mortality ◽  
Nationally Representative

SummaryThis paper analyses the relative importance of demographic and socioeconomic factors with respect to their role in reducing infant mortality in Egypt.Logit analyses of data from a nationally representative sample of Egyptian households, and for urban and rural households separately, indicate that demographic factors have more effect on infant mortality than socioeconomic factors. The results also show the need to improve housing in urban areas and sewerage systems in rural areas in order to reduce infant mortality. One of the most important policy conclusions, however, concerns the importance of providing a vigorous educational campaign to enlighten mothers and prospective mothers in both rural and urban areas on the positive effects of breast-feeding, longer birth intervals, and fewer children on the survival of infants.

MIGRATION, TRANSLOCAL NETWORKS AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC STRATIFICATION IN NAMIBIA

Africa ◽  
2011 ◽  
Vol 81 (4) ◽  
pp. 606-627 ◽  
Author(s):  
Clemens Greiner
Keyword(s):  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Sub Saharan Africa ◽  
Urban Migration ◽  
Urban Networks ◽  
Rural And Urban Areas ◽  
Economic Stratification ◽  
Rural And Urban ◽  
Sub Saharan ◽  
Price Differences

ABSTRACTRural–urban migration and networks are fundamental for many livelihoods in sub-Saharan Africa. Remittances in cash and kind provide additional income, enhance food security and offer access to viable resources in both rural and urban areas. Migration allows the involved households to benefit from price differences between rural and urban areas. In this contribution, I demonstrate that rural–urban networks not only contribute to poverty alleviation and security, but also further socio-economic stratification. This aspect has been ignored or neglected by most scholars and development planners. Using ethnographic data from Namibia, I have adopted a translocal perspective on migration and stratification, focusing on the resulting impact in rural areas where modern urban forms of stratification, induced by education and income from wage labour, are on the increase.

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