scholarly journals The complete photo-electric emission from the alloy of sodium and potassium

1917 ◽  
Vol 93 (652) ◽  
pp. 359-372 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Temperature Variation ◽  
Unit Area ◽  
Thermionic Emission ◽  
Black Body ◽  
External Source ◽  
Black Body Radiation ◽  
The Subject ◽  
The Law ◽  
Work Done ◽  
Sodium And Potassium

The experimental work described in the present paper suggested itself to the writer in connection with an earlier investigation on the law governing the temperature variation of the complete photo-electric emission from a hot body, i. e . the photo-electric emission from a body in equilibrium with the full (black body) radiation corresponding to its temperature. By making use of hypotheses contained in the quantum theory, the writer obtained the following expression for the current per unit area C = AT (1+2 k T/ Ф +2 k 2 T 2 / Ф 2 ) e -Ф / k t, where Ф is the work done in removing an electron from the hot body, and is equal to hv, v being the lowest frequency of the radiation capable of producing a photo-electric emission, and h being Planck’s constant. The quantity k is the "gas constant” reckoned for one molecule, and A is a quantity independent of T, and characteristic of the substance. As the expression inside the brackets in the above formula does not differ appreciably from unity, the latter is substantially of the same type as Richardson’s equation C = AT λ e -Ф / k T , (1) for the thermionic emission. Richardson* has also shown that it follows, from thermodynamic considerations, that this law governs the complete photo-electric emission. There is reason to believe that the thermionic emission is not wholly photo-electric in origin, but it is clear that some portion of it is the complete auto-photo-electric emission of the substance concerned, and that the law governing its temperature variation should be the same as that for the whole thermionic emission. We are thus led to expect that, when a body is exposed to an external source of full radiation, the same law will govern the variation of its complete photo-electric emission with the temperature of the source of the radiation. This expectation has been confirmed by experiments on the alloy of sodium and potassium, the description of which constitutes the subject of the present paper.

scholarly journals On the law and mechanism of monomolecular reaction

1926 ◽  
Vol 110 (755) ◽  
pp. 543-560 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Chemical Reactions ◽  
Chemical Reaction ◽  
Chemical Reactivity ◽  
Thermionic Emission ◽  
Black Body ◽  
Black Body Radiation ◽  
Single Frequency ◽  
Monomolecular Reaction ◽  
Wide Range ◽  
The Law

1. The object of the present paper is to work out an expression for the rate of monomolecular reaction on the basis of the idea that radiation is the cause of such reactions. The whole position of the radiation hypothesis of chemical reactivity up till now has been fully discussed by Harned. I only wish to draw attention to the fact, as pointed out by Langmuir, and Lewis and McKeown, that a great similarity exists between photo-electric emission of electrons and photo-chemical reaction. The true analogue of the thermo-chemical reaction should be sought, however, in the phenomenon of thermionic emission of electrons. It has long been shown experimentally by Richardson and others that the thermionic emission of electrons is vastly in excess of the total photo-electric emission at any temperature T. In the same way we should expect that the amount of thermo-chemical reaction in a system at a given temperature should be greater than the total photo-chemical reaction by black body radiation at the same temperature. Becker has shown that the distribution of velocities among the photo-electrons emitted from a metal by the action of black body radiation at a temperature T is similar to that found amongst the electrons emitted thermally from the hot metal at the same temperature T. It is thus natural to assume that the thermionic emission of electrons from a hot body is really due to the radiation in equilibrium with it. Richardson║ has recently given a very interesting discussion on the photo-electric theory of thermionic emission of electrons. Owing to the well-known difficulties the old view of the freely-moving electrons in a metal has, in recent years, been replaced by that of a lattice structure— a metal being considered to be constituted of interlaced lattices of ions and electrons. Such a view of metallic electrons precludes them from sharing in kinetic energy according to the equipartition law. It is rather more rational to imagine that the metallic electrons do exist in some modified quantum orbits, and are bound to the ions by a certain potential energy. If this view of the electronic structure in metals be accepted, then we have to look to radiation as the only controlling factor in the emission of electrons from hot bodies. The writer has tried to show that the law of thermionic emission derived on the basis of radiative mechanism is in good agreement with experiment. Lewis and McKeown have pointed out that “the concept of matter and radiation being at one and the same temperature means that as a result of absorption and emission, the system as a whole maintains a certain distribution of energy among all frequencies.” If by some process a set of frequencies are removed the system tends to make good the loss by a corresponding reverse process, provided the velocity of the process be not too large to make it physically impossible to keep the system at a fixed temperature by means of a thermostat. In my view the resemblance of photo-electric emission and photo-chemical reaction with thermionic emission and thermo-chemical reaction respectively arises from both kinds of processes being due to radiation. But the distinction lies in the fact that one is due to the action of high temperature radiation on a cold system, while the other is brought about by the action of radiation in temperature equilibrium with the system itself. 2. The Range of Frequencies of Radiation capable of bringing about a Chemical Reaction . Up till now it has been usually assumed that a single frequency, or rather a narrow range of frequencies, is capable of bringing about a chemical change. But experiments have shown that photo-chemical reactions are produced by the action of light of a wide range of frequencies. The simplest of all chemical reactions is the breaking up of atoms into ions and electrons, and it is widely known that the photo-electric action in various elements, both in solid and vapour phase, are brought about by all frequencies of radiation above a certain limiting frequency. The familiar reaction of practical photography is also known to be produced by light of a great variety of wave-lengths. It is, therefore, evident that a more complete theory of chemical reactivity should involve a summation of a number of frequencies, or, what is more plausible, an integration over a whole range of frequencies above a certain limiting value.

From Casimir Forces to Black-Body Radiation: Quantum and Thermal Fluctuations

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Alejandro W. Rodriguez ◽  
Adolfo Plasencia
Keyword(s):  
Driving Force ◽  
Black Body ◽  
Thermal Fluctuations ◽  
Black Body Radiation ◽  
Casimir Forces ◽  
Princeton University ◽  
Virtual Photons ◽  
Recent Developments ◽  
The Subject ◽  
Relationship Of

This dialogue with physicist Alejandro W. Rodríguez is in two parts. The first part, which took place in the MIT campus, reflects on how theory has been overtaking experimentation in recent developments in science. It also addresses the subject of the Casimir forces and their effects by using devices which benefit from them in everyday life. Later, Alejandro explains why the vacuum is not empty; and, what are the "virtual photons". In the second part, Alejandro explains his current research in the Department of Electrical Engineering of Princeton University, focusing on the black body; and quantum and thermal processes of electromagnetic fluctuations at the nanoscale, where the rules of quantum mechanics now hold sway. He is now studying quantum fluctuations and how the forces and energy exchanged between objects work. This all-important area is the current driving force for development in the field of thermovoltaic energy and thermal panels for capturing light; an area with a revolutionary potential capable of changing the existing relationship of humans with energy, technology and the environment, in other words, with the planet.

The Codification of the Law of Territorial Waters

1930 ◽  
Vol 24 (3) ◽  
pp. 486-499 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jesse S. Reeves
Keyword(s):  
International Law ◽  
League Of Nations ◽  
Preliminary Stage ◽  
Ample Opportunity ◽  
Preparatory Committee ◽  
The Subject ◽  
The Law ◽  
Work Done

Judged by its inability to agree upon a convention on territorial waters, as the substance of things hoped for, the Conference for the Codification of International Law was a failure. Good may come of the Conference. It may have been a necessary preliminary stage in a very long and difficult process. Nevertheless, the fact remains that its purpose was to agree upon a convention upon territorial waters and it failed of its purpose. Usually the cause of the ill-success of a conference is lack of preparation. This failure cannot be ascribed to lack of preparation. It is unnecessary to rehearse the antecedent steps. Several years had been devoted to preparation. Governments had agreed that the subject of territorial waters was suitable and ripe for codification. In addition to the work done by the Committee of Experts and by the Preparatory Committee, the governments had answered voluminous questionnaires and had made observations upon detailed schedules of points from which had been prepared the bases of discussion. All of this work had been completed and in print months before the Conference met. Apparently nothing was left undone by the agencies of the League of Nations in order that the various governments might have ample opportunity for examination and study of the questions involved. And, it may be added, the observations of the governments were for the most part responsive and illuminating.

Jeans' role in the law of black-body radiation

1980 ◽  
Vol 15 (4) ◽  
pp. 255-260 ◽  
Author(s):  
J B T McCaughan
Keyword(s):  
Black Body ◽  
Black Body Radiation ◽  
The Law

scholarly journals The mathematical representation of a light pulse

1914 ◽  
Vol 89 (612) ◽  
pp. 399-404
Keyword(s):  
Light Pulse ◽  
White Light ◽  
Black Body ◽  
Black Body Radiation ◽  
Mathematical Representation ◽  
Light Quantum ◽  
Concrete Case ◽  
Know How ◽  
New Class ◽  
The Subject

In recent years, owing to the work of Rayleigh, Schuster, and others, our views as to the nature of white light have undergone a change, and it is now universally accepted that white light consists of irregular pulses which are transformed into trains of sine waves by their passage through a prism. But the method of this transformation is not clearly understood, as the reasoning on the subject is unfortunately somewhat general, the only concrete case well known being the pulse Rayleigh represented by e - c 2 t 2 . Had the nature of a light pulse been better understood, there might possibly never have been any talk of the “Light Quantum” or unit theory of light. The object of this note is to call attention to a new class of expressions representing the initial form and dispersion of a light pulse. They are both simple and elegant, and one of them gives the energy distribution required by Wien’s law for black body radiation. They have been suggested by one of Kelvin’s hydrodynamical papers. They do not depend on the Fourier analysis and this is an advantage, for we never know how much of the latter is subjective.

ИЗМЕНЕНИЕ ПАРАДИГМЫ МЕТОДОЛОГИИ ЮРИСПРУДЕНЦИИ

2019 ◽  
Vol 13 ◽  
pp. 32-40
Author(s):  
Ю. М. Оборотов
Keyword(s):  
Legal Theory ◽  
Research Strategy ◽  
The State ◽  
New Paradigm ◽  
Methodological Question ◽  
Modern Development ◽  
Decisive Importance ◽  
The Subject ◽  
Methodological Approaches ◽  
The Law

В современной методологии юриспруденции происходит переход от изучения состо­яний ее объекта, которыми выступают право и государство, к постижению этого объек­та в его изменениях и превращениях. Две подсистемы методологии юриспруденции, подсистема обращенная к состоянию права и государства; и подсистема обращенная к изменениям права и государства, — получают свое отображение в концептуальной форме, методологических подходах, методах, специфических понятиях. Показательны перемены в содержании методологии юриспруденции, где определяю­щее значение имеют методологические подходы, определяющие стратегию исследова­тельских поисков во взаимосвязи юриспруденции с правом и государством. Среди наи­более характерных подходов антропологический, аксиологический, цивилизационный, синергетический и герменевтический — определяют плюралистичность современной методологии и свидетельствуют о становлении новой парадигмы методологии юриспру­денции.   In modern methodology of jurisprudence there is a transition from the study the states of its object to its comprehension in changes and transformations. Hence the two subsystems of methodology of jurisprudence: subsystem facing the states of the law and the state as well as their components and aspects; and subsystem facing the changes of the law and the state in general and their constituents. These subsystems of methodology of jurisprudence receive its reflection in conceptual form, methodological approaches, methods, specific concepts. Methodology of jurisprudence should not be restricted to the methodology of legal theory. In this regard, it is an important methodological question about subject of jurisprudence. It is proposed to consider the subject of jurisprudence as complex, covering both the law and the state in their specificity, interaction and integrity. Indicative changes in the content methodology of jurisprudence are the usage of decisive importance methodological approaches that govern research strategy searches in conjunction with the law and the state. Among the most characteristic of modern development approaches: anthropological, axiological, civilization, synergistic and hermeneutic. Modern methodology of jurisprudence is pluralistic in nature alleging various approaches to the law and the state. Marked approaches allow the formation of a new paradigm methodology of jurisprudence.

Without the Power to Drink or Contract

2020 ◽  
Vol 24 (1) ◽  
pp. 26-48
Author(s):  
Warren Swain
Keyword(s):  
Alcohol Consumption ◽  
Social Activity ◽  
Individual Responsibility ◽  
Roman Law ◽  
Current Position ◽  
Modern Times ◽  
The Will ◽  
The Subject ◽  
The Law ◽  
Over Time

Intoxication as a ground to set aside a contract is not something that has proved to be easy for the law to regulate. This is perhaps not very surprising. Intoxication is a temporary condition of varying degrees of magnitude. Its presence does however raise questions of contractual autonomy and individual responsibility. Alcohol consumption is a common social activity and perceptions of intoxication and especially alcoholism have changed over time. Roman law is surprisingly quiet on the subject. In modern times the rules about intoxicated contracting in Scottish and English law is very similar. Rather more interestingly the law in these two jurisdictions has reached the current position in slightly different ways. This history can be traced through English Equity, the works of the Scottish Institutional writers, the rise of the Will Theory, and all leavened with a dose of judicial pragmatism.

Human Rights Activities as a Function of the Prosecutor’s Office

2020 ◽  
Vol 3 ◽  
pp. 88-93
Author(s):  
K.N. Golikov ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Human Rights ◽  
Civil Rights ◽  
Russian Federation ◽  
The State ◽  
Main Function ◽  
Federal Law ◽  
The Subject ◽  
The Russian Federation ◽  
The Law

The subject of this article is the problems of the nature, essence and purpose of prosecutorial activity. The purpose of the article is to study and justify the role of the human rights function in prosecutorial activities in the concept of a modern legal state. At the heart of prosecutorial activity is the implementation of the main function of the Prosecutor’s office – its rights and freedoms, their protection. This means that any type (branch) of Prosecutor's supervision is permeated with human rights content in relation to a citizen, society, or the state. This is confirmed by the fact that the Federal law “On the Prosecutor's office of the Russian Federation” establishes an independent type of Prosecutor's supervision-supervision over the observance of human and civil rights and freedoms. It is argued that the legislation enshrines the human rights activities of the Prosecutor's office as its most important function. It is proposed to add this to the Law “On the Prosecutor's office of the Russian Federation”.

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