scholarly journals Epidemiology of bacterial contamination of inert hospital surfaces and equipment in critical and non-critical care units: a Brazilian multicenter study

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Dayane Otero Rodrigues ◽  
Laís da Paixão Peixoto ◽  
Erica Tatiane Mourão Barros ◽  
Julianne Rodrigues Guimarães ◽  
Bruna Clemente Gontijo ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Staphylococcus Aureus ◽  
Medical Equipment ◽  
Bacterial Contamination ◽  
Bacterial Species ◽  
Brain Heart Infusion ◽  
Multidrug Resistant ◽  
Public Hospitals ◽  
Hospital Environment ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Inert Surfaces

AbstractThe hospital environment is an important reservoir of microorganisms, including multidrug-resistant pathogens, which can cause in-patient contamination and healthcare-related infections. The objective of this study was to analyze the epidemiology of bacterial contamination (contaminated sites, pathogen species and their antimicrobial susceptibility, and tracking of multidrug-resistant microorganisms - MDR) of inert hospital surfaces and medical equipment in two public hospitals in Northern Brazil. This was a cross-sectional study with 243 samples (n = 208, from Hospital A; and n = 35, from Hospital B) collected by friction with swabs moistened in Brain Heart Infusion from inert surfaces and equipment. The samples were cultivated and bacterial species were identified by the classical approach and tested for their susceptibility through agar diffusion assay according to the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI). Most inert surfaces and equipment analyzed presented bacterial contamination (95.5%). Staphylococcus aureus was the main pathogen of clinical significance detected both in Hospital A (61.8%) and B (68.6%). Hospital A showed higher rates of isolated MDR bacteria than Hospital B, especially in the Adult Intensive Care Unit, which included methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) (52.7%), Enterobacteria resistant to 4th generation cephalosporins (19.4%), and multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa (2.78%). The failures in the prevention and control of infections in the two hospitals analyzed reinforce the need for a revised protocol for cleaning and disinfection of inert surfaces and medical equipment, and for regulation of antibiotic dispensing, mainly in the AICU of Hospital A, which was found to be a reservoir of MDR pathogens. This study is innovative because it is the pioneer in Western Bahia that describes the epidemiology of contamination of hospital surfaces, opportuning futures studies in this field.

scholarly journals Epidemiology of Bacterial Contamination of Inert Hospital Surfaces and Equipment in Critical and Non-critical Care Units: A Brazilian Study

2020 ◽  
pp. 31-43
Author(s):  
Dayane Otero Rodrigues ◽  
Laís da Paixao Peixoto ◽  
Erica Tatiane Mourao Barros ◽  
Julianne Rodrigues Guimaraes ◽  
Bruna Clemente Gontijo ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Staphylococcus Aureus ◽  
Bacterial Contamination ◽  
Bacterial Species ◽  
Multidrug Resistant ◽  
Cross Sectional Study ◽  
Public Hospitals ◽  
Hospital Environment ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Adult Intensive Care Unit ◽  
Inert Surfaces

Aims: The hospital environment is an important reservoir of microorganisms, including multidrug-resistant pathogens, which can cause in-patient contamination and healthcare-related infections.  The objective of this study was to describe the epidemiology of bacterial contamination (contaminated sites, pathogen species and their antimicrobial susceptibility, and identifying of multidrug-resistant microorganisms - MDR) of inert hospital surfaces and medical equipment in two public hospitals in Northern Brazil. Methods: This was a cross-sectional study with 243 samples (n = 208, from Hospital A; and n = 35, from Hospital B) collected by friction with humidified swabs from inert surfaces and equipment. Sequentially the samples were cultivated and bacterial species were identified by culture-based methods and tested for their susceptibility through agar diffusion assay according to the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI). Results: Most inert surfaces and equipment analyzed presented bacterial contamination (95.5%). Staphylococcus aureus was the main pathogen of clinical significance detected both in Hospital A (61.8%) and B (68.6%). Hospital A showed higher rates of isolated MDR bacteria than Hospital B, especially in the Adult Intensive Care Unit, which included methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) (52.7%), Enterobacteria resistant to 4th generation cephalosporins (19.4%), and multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa (2.8%). Conclusion: The failures in the control of bacterial contamination of inert surfaces and equipment in the two hospitals analyzed reinforce the need for a revised protocol for cleaning and disinfection of the inert surfaces and equipment, and for regulation of antibiotic dispensing, mainly in the AICU of Hospital A, which was found to be a reservoir of MDR pathogens.

scholarly journals Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) as Potential Mechanical Vectors of Pathogenic Bacteria in a Public Hospital in the Eastern Amazon, Brazil

2020 ◽  
Vol 57 (5) ◽  
pp. 1619-1626
Author(s):  
Leonardo Espíndola do Nascimento ◽  
Raquel Rodrigues Amaral ◽  
Ricardo Marcelo dos Anjos Ferreira ◽  
Diogo Vitor Soares Trindade ◽  
Rafael Espíndola do Nascimento ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Public Hospital ◽  
Pathogenic Bacteria ◽  
Bacterial Contamination ◽  
Bacterial Species ◽  
Brain Heart Infusion ◽  
Hospital Environment ◽  
Hospital Environments ◽  
Microbiological Analyses ◽  
Amazonian Region ◽  
Dominant Ant

Abstract Studies related to ants found in hospital environments have aroused interest in their role as mechanical vectors of pathogenic microorganisms. The objective of the current research was to determine the species composition and bacterial contamination of ant species found in a public hospital in the eastern Amazonian region. Ants were captured using bait containing honey and sterilized sardines in 15 locations within the Macapá Emergency Hospital, Amapá. Ants were identified morphologically using specific keys. Bacteria were first inoculed in a Brain Heart Infusion broth and then plated on 5% Agar with blood or MacConkey media. Bacterial species were identified through biochemical procedures. In total, 9,687 ants were collected, with 69.8% from the dry season and 30.2% from the rainy season. Nine species of ants were identified belonging to three subfamilies: the Monomorium pharaonis (Linnaeus 1758) being the most common, comprising 39.2% of the total specimens. Only one ant species was found in each bait, facilitating microbiological analyses. In total, 92 bacteria isolates were identified comprising 12 species. Pseudomonas aeruginosa Schroeter 1872 (Pseudomonadales: Pseudomonadaceae) was pathogenic bacteria, most frequently isolated, comprising 10.9% of the positive samples. The most contaminated ant in the study was M. pharaonis with 38.3%. It was the dominant ant species in this hospital environment. Its wide prevalence, forage day and night of this vector in hospital facilitated bacterial contamination. The presence of bacteria on ants may be associated with the dissemination of pathogens which cause hospital infections, making pest control a necessity in these institutions.

scholarly journals Contamination of the Surfaces of a Health Care Environment by Multidrug-Resistant (MDR) Bacteria

2019 ◽  
Vol 2019 ◽  
pp. 1-7 ◽  
Author(s):  
Laila Chaoui ◽  
RajaaAit Mhand ◽  
Fouad Mellouki ◽  
Naima Rhallabi
Keyword(s):  
Staphylococcus Aureus ◽  
Pathogenic Bacteria ◽  
Multidrug Resistant ◽  
Cross Sectional Study ◽  
Hospital Environment ◽  
Diffusion Method ◽  
Health Care Environment ◽  
Disk Diffusion Method ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Gram Negative

Nosocomial infections (NIs) are known worldwide and remain a major problem despite scientific and technical advances in the field of health. The severity of the infection depends on the characteristics of the microorganisms involved and the high frequency of resistant pathogens in the hospital environment. The aim of this study is to determine the distribution of pathogenic bacteria (and their resistance to antibiotics) that spread on hospital surfaces, more specifically, on those of various departments in the Provincial Hospital Center (PHC) of Mohammedia, Morocco. A cross-sectional study was conducted from March 2017 to April 2018. Samples were collected by swabbing the hospital surfaces, and the isolated bacteria were checked for their susceptibility to antibiotics by the Kirby–Bauer disk diffusion method following the standards of the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI). Among 200 swab samples, 176 (88%) showed bacterial growth. Gram-negative isolates were predominant at 51.5% (101/196), while the Gram-positives were at 48.5% (95/196). The main isolates are Enterobacteria weighted at 31.6% (62/196), Staphylococcus aureus reaching 24% (47/196), Pseudomonas aeruginosa at 9.2% (18/196), and Acinetobacter spp. with 3.3% (6/196). Moreover, the antimicrobial susceptibility profile of the isolates showed that about 31.7% (32/101) of the Gram-negative isolates were found to be MDR. This resistance is also high among isolates of S. aureus of which 44.7% (20/47) were methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Contamination of hospital surfaces by MDR bacteria is a real danger to public health. The concept of environmental bacterial reservoir is a reality that requires strict compliance with current guidelines and recommendations for hand hygiene, cleaning, and disinfection of surfaces in hospitals.

Assessment of Bacterial Contamination of Orthodontic Arch wire

2019 ◽  
Vol 31 (1) ◽  
pp. 48-51
Author(s):  
Suha S Hassan ◽  
Nidhal H. Ghaib ◽  
Batool H Al-Ghurabi
Keyword(s):  
Bacterial Contamination ◽  
Microbial Contamination ◽  
Ethylenediaminetetraacetic Acid ◽  
Bacterial Species ◽  
Brain Heart Infusion ◽  
Control Groups ◽  
Dental Practitioners ◽  
Significant Difference ◽  
Bacillus Spp ◽  
Droplet Transmission

Background: The microorganisms can impend the life of health care professional and particularly the dental practitioners. They can be transmitted by different ways like airborne and droplet transmission. The current study was carried out to identify whether the arch wires that received from the manufactures are free from microbial contamination and to determine the bacterial species attached to the arch wires. Materials and Methods: This study involved eighty samples, consisted of two types of arch wires (nitinol and stainless-steel) from four companies (3M, G&H, Jiscop, OrthoTechnology). These wires inserted in a plane tube that contains 10 -ml of (Tris [tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane] and EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) tris-EDTA and brain heart infusion (BHI) broth. A 0.1 ml was withdrawn from the tube and spread on agar plates. The control groups consist of 16 plane tube (8 tubes with tris-EDTA and other 8 tubes with (BHI). Results: Microbial sampling yielded growth from 5 of the 80 arch wires. The predominant bacteria that isolated were Bacillus spp. No growth was recovered from 75 of the samples and from controls. The bacteria were isolated by BHI reagent and no growth was observed by tris-EDTA reagent with statistically significant difference (P<0.05). The Bacillus spp. found only in the G&H and Jiscop companies, however, no statistically significant difference was found among them (P>0.05). With regard to the presence and distribution of bacteria according to the types of wires, the present results clarified that cases of contamination with Bacillus spp. were found in the nitinol arch wires with statistically significant difference (P<0.05). Conclusions: The results of the current study revealed low count of bacterial contamination in the two types of companies (G&H and Jiscop). Not all materials that received from the manufactures are free from contamination and an effective sterilization regimen is needed to avoid cross-contamination.

scholarly journals Spectral and Antibiotic Susceptibility of Pathogens Isolated from Saudi Patients with Diabetic Foot Infections

2021 ◽  
Vol 12 (1) ◽  
pp. 16-20
Author(s):  
Samiah Hamad S Al-Mijalli
Keyword(s):  
Staphylococcus Aureus ◽  
Diabetic Foot ◽  
Antibiotic Susceptibility ◽  
Empirical Therapy ◽  
Multidrug Resistant ◽  
Foot Ulcers ◽  
Sensitivity Testing ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Diabetic Foot Infections ◽  
Microbiological Methods

Diabetic foot infections (DFIs) are a significant health issue and a common complication among patients with diabetes. To develop antibiotic therapy for these high-risk patients, the current study evaluates the scope of DFIs and identifies the causing microbes. It also measures spectrum and antibiotic susceptibility of the pathogens isolated from adults with DFIs in Saudi Arabia. To achieve the study objectives, a cross-sectional study was implemented and the baseline characteristics for 44 patients with DFIs were defined. Optimal aerobic and anaerobic microbiological techniques were utilized to culture specimens isolated from infected foot ulcers. The standard microbiological methods were employed to identify the bacterial isolates and antibiotic susceptibility testing was conducted following the procedures of the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI). Results showed that 12 microorganisms were isolated from the participants’ diabetic foot ulcers. Staphylococcus Aureus was ranked first because it appeared in 29 (65.9%) cases. Streptococcus Agalactiae was ranked second and multi-microbial infections were also found. Most of the organisms were susceptible to Vancomycin, Ciprofloxacin, and Cefalexin, but they were resistant to Methicillin, Gentamicin, and Ampicillin antibiotics. Staphylococcus Aureus was most sensitive to Ciprofloxacin, while it was resistant to Methicillin. About 10% of the isolates were multidrug-resistant. The study concludes that while Vancomycin should be used empirically for Gram-positive isolates, Ciprofloxacin can be taken into consideration for most of the Gram-negatives aerobes. Based on including various microorganisms and the advent of multidrug-resistant strains, proper culture and sensitivity testing are necessary prior to the empirical therapy.

scholarly journals Hidden reservoirs of pathogens in dental settings

2021 ◽  
Vol 17 (1) ◽  
pp. 73-79
Author(s):  
Silpi Chatterjee ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Staphylococcus Aureus ◽  
Mobile Phones ◽  
Nosocomial Infections ◽  
Bacterial Species ◽  
Brain Heart Infusion ◽  
Bacillus Species ◽  
Coagulase Negative Staphylococcus ◽  
Cross Contamination ◽  
Sterile Saline ◽  
Predominant Species

Nosocomial infections are a major concern to both clinicians and health care seekers. Investigations have suggested that laptops & mobile phones may contribute to cross-contamination and can serve as vehicles for infection transmission. Therefore, it is of interest to document the data on hidden reservoirs such as mobile phones and laptops of pathogens in dental settings at the Hazaribag college of dental sciences and Hospital, Jharkhand. The samples were collected from 25 laptops and 25 mobile phones from dentists working in a dental college in Hazaribag city. The samples were collected aseptically using sterile cotton swabs dipped in sterile saline by rotating the swabs on the keyboard surfaces of laptops and mobile phones, inoculated into Brain Heart Infusion broth, vortexed for 1 minute in Fischer Vortex Genie 2 on highest setting & streaked immediately on 5% sheep blood agar plates and were incubated at 370C for 24 hours aerobically. The isolates were identified based on the colony morphology, colony characteristics and biochemical reactions. The bacterial species isolated were Staphylococcus aureus, Coagulase negative Staphylococcus, Bacillus species, Enterococci, Micrococci, and Pseudomonas etc. Predominant species isolated was Staphylococcus aureus and least was Micrococci. Higher percentage of organisms was found at the Department of Periodontics, Endodontics and least was found in Department of Public Health Dentistry. The percentage and type of organism isolated from keyboards of laptops and mobile phones were similar. Thus, laptops and mobile phones act as vehicles for transfer of potential pathogens associated with dental hospitals. Disinfecting the hands prior to examination of patients and disinfection of laptops and mobiles with alcohol wipes should be done to prevent nosocomial infections.

scholarly journals MRSA contamination in ambulances: a systematic review

2019 ◽  
Vol 29 (Supplement_4) ◽  
Author(s):  
M Fattorini ◽  
C Quercioli ◽  
G Messina ◽  
N Nante
Keyword(s):  
Systematic Review ◽  
Medical Equipment ◽  
Bloodstream Infections ◽  
Multidrug Resistant ◽  
European Countries ◽  
Hospital Environment ◽  
Resistant Organism ◽  
Healthcare Settings ◽  
Search Terms ◽  
Potential Reservoir

Abstract Background Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a multidrug resistant organism (MDRO) frequently involved in skin, soft tissue and bone infections. Moreover, it is one of the most frequently isolated pathogen in bloodstream infections in European countries. Because of its capacity to survive on inanimate surfaces, this microorganism could be detected not only on hospital environment, but also in other healthcare settings such as ambulances. We performed a systematic review in order to study the level of MRSA contamination in ambulances (vehicle surfaces and medical equipment). Methods In March 2019 we searched studies in PubMed using the key search terms “MRSA, ambulance”. We included different designs of studies in English. Results The research yielded 18 publications: after title, abstract and full text’s analysis, 9 manuscripts were included in this review. Studies were conducted from 2007 to 2018 in USA, Egypt, Poland, Germany and South Korea. Overall, the number of ambulances sampled for MRSA was 511 (min. 3-max. 150), and 64 (12.5%) resulted contaminated by MRSA. Sampling points examined for each vehicle varied from 5 to 33, for a total of 5872 (min. 39-max. 2136) samplings performed. The amount of MRSA positive samplings was 145/5872 (2.5%) (min. 1-max. 43). Stretcher resulted the most frequently contaminated fomite (29 of the 145 MRSA positive samplings, 20%). Conclusions Despite MRSA prevalence is decreasing in Europe, recent studies showed how this MDRO could still be responsible of a remarkable burden in terms of attributable deaths and costs. Implementing effective sanitation procedures with a continuative monitoring of the processes is highly recommended in all the healthcare settings, including ambulances. Automated terminal disinfection of these vehicles, adopting technologies such as ultraviolet germicidal irradiation or hydrogen peroxide aerosol, could reduce bacterial contamination hosted on surfaces and medical equipment. Key messages Although the percentage of isolates of MRSA in European countries is decreasing, the burden this multidrug resistant organism in terms of mortality and costs remains remarkable. Ambulances must be considered as a potential reservoir of MRSA because of its ability to survive on inanimate surfaces, and adequate sanitation procedures should be frequently performed.

scholarly journals High Colonization Rate and Heterogeneity of ESBL- and Carbapenemase-Producing Enterobacteriaceae Isolated from Gull Feces in Lisbon, Portugal

2020 ◽  
Vol 8 (10) ◽  
pp. 1487
Author(s):  
Marta Aires-de-Sousa ◽  
Claudine Fournier ◽  
Elizeth Lopes ◽  
Hermínia de Lencastre ◽  
Patrice Nordmann ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Escherichia Coli ◽  
Staphylococcus Aureus ◽  
Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus ◽  
Bacterial Species ◽  
Multidrug Resistant ◽  
Resistant Bacteria ◽  
Multidrug Resistant Bacteria ◽  
Vancomycin Resistant Enterococci ◽  
Vancomycin Resistant ◽  
Encoding Genes

In order to evaluate whether seagulls living on the Lisbon coastline, Portugal, might be colonized and consequently represent potential spreaders of multidrug-resistant bacteria, a total of 88 gull fecal samples were screened for detection of extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)- or carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and for vancomycin-resistant Enterococci (VRE). A large proportion of samples yielded carbapenemase- or ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae (16% and 55%, respectively), while only two MRSA and two VRE were detected. Mating-out assays followed by PCR and whole-plasmid sequencing allowed to identify carbapenemase and ESBL encoding genes. Among 24 carbapenemase-producing isolates, there were mainly Klebsiella pneumoniae (50%) and Escherichia coli (33%). OXA-181 was the most common carbapenemase identified (54%), followed by OXA-48 (25%) and KPC-2 (17%). Ten different ESBLs were found among 62 ESBL-producing isolates, mainly being CTX-M-type enzymes (87%). Co-occurrence in single samples of multiple ESBL- and carbapenemase producers belonging to different bacterial species was observed in some cases. Seagulls constitute an important source for spreading multidrug-resistant bacteria in the environment and their gut microbiota a formidable microenvironment for transfer of resistance genes within bacterial species.

scholarly journals Antimicrobial resistance in pathogens causing nosocomial infections in surgery and intensive care units of two hospitals in Antananarivo, Madagascar

2009 ◽  
Vol 4 (02) ◽  
pp. 074-082 ◽  
Author(s):  
Frédérique Randrianirina ◽  
Laetitia Vaillant ◽  
Charles Emile Ramarokoto ◽  
Armand Rakotoarijaona ◽  
Mamy Lalatiana Andriamanarivo ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Staphylococcus Aureus ◽  
Intensive Care ◽  
Antimicrobial Resistance ◽  
Nosocomial Infections ◽  
Pathogenic Bacteria ◽  
Hospital Environment ◽  
Third Generation ◽  
Cross Sectional Survey ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Third Generation Cephalosporins

Background: In developing countries, knowledge of antimicrobial resistance patterns is essential to define empirical therapy. Methodology: All the surgery and intensive care wards of two hospitals in Antananarivo were included to study the antimicrobial susceptibility of the pathogenic bacteria causing nosocomial infections. A repeated cross-sectional survey was conducted between September 2006 and March 2008, one day per week. Isolates were identified using classical methods, and resistance to antibiotics was assessed according to the recommendations of the Antibiogram Committee of the French Microbiology Society. Results: Clinical specimens from 706 from 651 patients were collected. Of the 533 bacterial pathogens, 46.7% were Enterobacteriaceae, 19.3% were Staphylococcus aureus, and 19.1% were pathogens from the hospital environment (Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter baumannii).Frequencies of resistance were high, particularly in Enterobacteriaceae; however, the rate of Staphylococcus aureus isolates resistant to oxacillin (13.6 %) was moderate and all these isolates were susceptible to glycopeptids. The percentages of isolates susceptible to ceftazidim were 81.8% for E. coli, 60.9% for Klebsiella, and 52.5% for Enterobacter spp. Resistance to third-generation cephalosporins was due to extended spectrum betalactamases (ESBL). Multivariate analysis showed that diabetes (adjusted OR: 3.9) and use of an invasive procedures (adjusted OR: 3.5) were independent risk factors for resistance to third-generation cephalosporins. Conclusion: A nationwide surveillance programme is needed to monitor the microbial trends and antimicrobial resistance in Madagascar.

scholarly journals Phenotypic Detection of Methicillin and Inducible Clindamycin Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus: An Effort to Combat Antimicrobial Resistance and Improve Patient Safety in Gombe, Nigeria

2021 ◽  
Vol 2 (1) ◽  
pp. 52-56
Author(s):  
Mohammed M Manga ◽  
Gloria O Michael ◽  
Aishatu A Julde ◽  
Gidado Muhammad ◽  
Umar M Hassan ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Staphylococcus Aureus ◽  
Patient Safety ◽  
Antimicrobial Resistance ◽  
Methicillin Resistance ◽  
Improve Patient Safety ◽  
Multidrug Resistant ◽  
Diffusion Method ◽  
Infection Prevention And Control ◽  
Erythromycin Resistance ◽  
Cross Sectional

Introduction: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a major threat to patient safety. Methicillin and inducible clindamycin resistant Staphylococcus aureus are important multidrug resistant organisms (MDROs). Timely reporting of MDROs is necessary for rational antibiotic prescription and in combating AMR. We present the prevalence and distribution of Methicillin and inducible clindamycin resistant (iCR) isolates of Staphylococcus aureus from Gombe Nigeria. Materials and Methods: This descriptive cross-sectional study included 260 isolates of Staphylococcus aureus from clinical specimens in Federal Teaching Hospital Gombe (FTHG). Isolates identification was done using conventional biochemical methods. Methicillin resistance was detected by cefoxitin disc diffusion method while iCR isolates by erythromycin and clindamycin disc approximation test (D-test). Data analysis was done using SPSS version 23.0. Results: Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) was detected in 178 (68.5%) isolates while 214 (82.3%) were iCR (D-test positive). Among the MRSA, 87.1% were also iCR while 72.4% of the iCR isolates were MRSA. There was significant association between MRSA and iCR (p = 0.03), MRSA and clindamycin resistance (p = 0.05) and MRSA and erythromycin resistance (p < 0.01). Conclusion: Prevalence of MDR Staphylococcus aureus is high in Gombe Nigeria. Antimicrobial stewardship programme (ASP) and good Infection Prevention and Control (IPC) are necessary in combating AMR and improving patient safety.

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