The moderating influence of national culture on female and male entrepreneurs’ social network size and new venture growth

2019 ◽  
Vol 26 (4) ◽  
pp. 490-521 ◽  
Author(s):  
Bat Batjargal ◽  
Justin W. Webb ◽  
Anne Tsui ◽  
Jean-Luc Arregle ◽  
Michael A. Hitt ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Gender Differences ◽  
Social Networks ◽  
Gender Roles ◽  
Gender Stereotypes ◽  
National Policy ◽  
Network Size ◽  
Female Entrepreneurs ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Individual Level ◽  
Gender Egalitarianism

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to disentangle individual-level gender differences and norm-based gender roles and stereotypes to provide a finer-grained understanding of why female and male entrepreneurs experience different growth returns from their social networks across different national cultures. Design/methodology/approach This research uses a survey of 637 (278 female and 359 male) entrepreneurs across four nations varying on relational culture (importance of social relationships) and gender egalitarianism (importance of gender equality or neutrality in social and economic roles). Findings The authors find evidence that male entrepreneurs in high relational cultures benefit the most in terms of growth in revenues from larger network size while women in low relational cultures benefit the least. In cultures with low gender egalitarianism, male entrepreneurs benefit more from their larger social networks than did the female entrepreneurs. Practical implications The study presents implications for female entrepreneurs’ behaviors to gain more benefits from their social networks, especially in cultural contexts where relationships are important or where there is equality in gender roles. In these contexts, they may need to develop other strategies and rely less on social networks to grow their ventures. Social implications This research suggests that female entrepreneurs still are disadvantaged in some societies. National policy may focus on developing more opportunities and providing more support to women entrepreneurs as a valuable contributor to economic growth of the nations. Originality/value The authors disentangle the effects of gender differences, norm-based gender stereotypes and networks on entrepreneurial outcomes.

scholarly journals Gender differences in the use of assistance programs

2015 ◽  
Vol 4 (1) ◽  
pp. 85-101 ◽  
Author(s):  
Juita-Elena (Wie) Yusuf
Keyword(s):  
Gender Differences ◽  
Panel Study ◽  
Network Size ◽  
Personal Network ◽  
Female Entrepreneurs ◽  
Assistance Program ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Assistance Programs ◽  
Start Up ◽  
Targeted Assistance

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine differences in factors influencing use of entrepreneurial assistance programs by male and female entrepreneurs. Design/methodology/approach – Data from the Panel Study of Entrepreneurial Dynamics I are used to determine drivers of assistance program use by men and women using logistic regression. These drivers include size and composition of the start-up team and personal network, experiences of the entrepreneur, team and network; support provided by the team and network, and other factors. Findings – In total, 31 percent of female entrepreneurs and 24 percent of male entrepreneurs in the sample used entrepreneurial assistance programs. Results show that drivers of assistance use do vary by gender. Education, business/entrepreneurial knowledge and involvement in a technology-based start-up are drivers of program use by women. Personal network size, entrepreneurial experience of start-up team, and having worked for parents’ business are drivers of program use by men. Practical implications – This study inform policy and support practices about use of assistance programs and suggests that the support drivers of women are different, justifying continued need for targeted assistance programs such as those specifically for women starting technology-based ventures. Originality/value – This research addresses gender differences in use of assistance programs. Results provide support that a “one-size-fits all” support may not be useful, and that there may be need for targeted assistance programs.

scholarly journals The representations and implications of gender stereotypes portrayed in three selected TV advertisements shown in Bangladesh: a critical interpretation

2021 ◽  
Vol ahead-of-print (ahead-of-print) ◽  
Author(s):  
Saheeh Shafi
Keyword(s):  
Gender Roles ◽  
Gender Stereotypes ◽  
Point Of View ◽  
Women Empowerment ◽  
Asian Countries ◽  
Female Entrepreneurs ◽  
Gender Representations ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Political Implications ◽  
Critical Interpretation

Purpose This paper aims to the precise critical interpretation of gender roles portrayed in the three selected TV advertisements shown in Bangladesh. Design/methodology/approach The analysis begins with the theoretical framework of gender roles analysis here in this paper: Goffman’s gender stereotypes hypothesis which is used to identify and analyse the thematic features present in the ads. After critically examining the hypothesis, Kress and Van Leeuwen’s systemic functional analysis framework is used to analyse the semiotic feature to interpret the signs and symbols. After that, Fairclough’s stylistic analysis of discourse analysis is used to find out these features in the advertisements to search the cultural, political implications. Finally, the paper uses Pope’s The Rape of the Lock and it is Cultural-Ecofeminist Analysis of Francois d’Eaubonne. Findings This paper tries to connect with the above-mentioned frameworks from a contextual point of view to predict the future progression of the gender representations and their implications in the coming years to check whether the changes in gender roles are reflected in the society or not. Originality/value Both in houses and workplaces, women empowerment, more female entrepreneurs in the working forces will bring out a change in the minds of people about the stereotypes and make more women inclusive and the women-friendly environment in Bangladesh and South Asian Countries.

The True Believers

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Barbara J. Risman
Keyword(s):  
Gender Differences ◽  
Social Networks ◽  
Social Life ◽  
Gender Ideology ◽  
Macro Level ◽  
Individual Level ◽  
Gender Differentiation ◽  
The World ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Gendered Expectations

This is the first data chapter. In this chapter, respondents who are described as true believers in the gender structure, and essentialist gender differences are introduced and their interviews analyzed. They are true believers because, at the macro level, they believe in a gender ideology where women and men should be different and accept rules and requirements that enforce gender differentiation and even sex segregation in social life. In addition, at the interactional level, these Millennials report having been shaped by their parent’s traditional expectations and they similarly feel justified to impose gendered expectations on those in their own social networks. At the individual level, they have internalized masculinity or femininity, and embody it in how they present themselves to the world. They try hard to “do gender” traditionally.

Performance and financing strategies of female and male entrepreneurs in the Republic of Serbia

2017 ◽  
Vol 9 (2) ◽  
pp. 136-156 ◽  
Author(s):  
Danijela Stošic Panić
Keyword(s):  
Gender Differences ◽  
Gender Gap ◽  
Statistical Significance ◽  
Entrepreneurial Activity ◽  
Categorical Variables ◽  
Female Entrepreneurs ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Net Profit ◽  
The Republic ◽  
The Relationship

Purpose The paper examines gender differences in the performance and financing strategies of female and male entrepreneurs in the Republic of Serbia. The aim of this study is to explore the gender dimension – a much under-researched aspect of entrepreneurship in the Republic of Serbia – and to link the findings with those of other environments. Design/methodology/approach To explore gender-based differences in entrepreneurial activity, a random sample of 327 units was drawn from the Serbian Business Registers Agency’s Register of Companies. In total, 101 completed questionnaires were received. The chi-square test of association was used to assess the relationship between two categorical variables, while the non-parametric Mann–Whitney U test was used to assess the statistical importance of the differences between groups of female and male entrepreneurs. The relationship between the performance and different sources of financing was assessed by multiple regression analysis. Findings The results confirm the existence of a gender gap in the net profit, employment growth rate, return on assets (ROA) and in use of various types of alternative financing sources. The evidence shows that those male entrepreneurs who use personal funds achieve lower levels of net profit and ROA compared to those who use internal business sources. Lower ROA is also achieved by those male entrepreneurs who use alternative sources of financing, relative to those who do not use these sources. Female entrepreneurs who applied for bank loans realized higher net profit value compared to those who did not apply for a loan. Moreover, female entrepreneurs who use some kind of state-supported funding achieve higher ROA than those who do not. Other gender differences found regarding the various aspects of the financing practices lacked statistical significance. Originality/value Although the generalizability of part of the findings is weakened due to the lack of statistical significance, most of the expected gender differences were found to exist at the sample level. This encourages further studies of similarities and differences between female and male entrepreneurs’ financing strategies and their impact on business performance. This is particularly important for the environments in which the gender aspect of entrepreneurial activity is under-researched.

Gender stereotypes: persistence and challenges

2021 ◽  
Vol ahead-of-print (ahead-of-print) ◽  
Author(s):  
Gladys Merma-Molina ◽  
María Alejandra Ávalos-Ramos ◽  
María Ángeles Martínez Ruiz
Keyword(s):  
Body Image ◽  
Gender Roles ◽  
Gender Equality ◽  
Gender Stereotypes ◽  
Self Esteem ◽  
Self Concept ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Household Chores ◽  
Data Collection Strategy ◽  
And Gender

PurposeThe aims of this study are to identify and analyse prevalent gender roles and the persistence of sexist stereotypes among teachers in training in Spain, to determine the reasons for them and suggest solutions for eradicating sexist prejudices.Design/methodology/approachA gender role questionnaire was administered to 1260 workers from 54 different professions who were enrolled on a postgraduate training course to qualify as secondary education teachers. The instrument contained six variables for both quantitative and qualitative analysis: professional work, family (looking after children), feelings and emotions, household chores, body image and free time.FindingsHousehold chores, looking after children and gender roles linked to body image were those most indicated by both men and women. It is concluded that men participate little in bringing up children and household chores and that women continue to shoulder the responsibility. Both are concerned about their body image, but women have little self-acceptance of and satisfaction with their bodies and a stronger sense of being judged by how they look. Gender stereotypes persist, despite extensive legislation in Spain since 2004.Research limitations/implicationsThe study has limitations deriving from its choice of convenience sampling. Although it includes participants from six Spanish autonomous communities, the number from each region is not very high. Nevertheless, the sample is representative of almost all branches of knowledge (54 professions). Another limitation concerns the images used in the research instrument as a data collection strategy insofar, as they could not be obtained from a data bank specific to the research subject but instead had to be found in databases of general images. It can be inferred that a data collection strategy without any danger of bias would be to encourage each participant to design their own images, reflecting their perceptions and auto-perceptions of gender roles and stereotypes. The fact that there were no pre-existing studies using this type of research instrument in education sciences was a handicap for the investigation. Despite these methodological limitations, the results of the study may serve as a basis for implementing specific future actions originating from any area – but especially from the area of education – aimed at teaching people about equal roles in order to eliminate sexist sterotypes. This research was carried out as part of the Proyecto Diseño y Atención a las Oportunidades de Género en la Educación Superior (Project on Design and Gender Equality of Opportunities in Higher Education) funded by the Vicerrectorado de Cooperación al Desarrollo (Office for University Cooperation for Development) at the University of Alicante (Spain).Practical implicationsSpanish legislation has not been able to promote significant changes in the performance of traditional gender roles or to eliminate sexist stereotypes that perpetuate imbalances between men and women. The ideal and prevalent model of a Spanish woman is still that of a “self-sacrificing mother”, responsible for the household chores and childcare. She must combine this first job with a second profession, and, in addition, she must have a “desirable physical image”. The study puts forward various possible solutions for reducing and/or eradicating sexist attitudes with the participation of different social agents and in particular through education. The investigation could be of use when carrying out specific cross-sectional interventions on the subject of gender equality with students on postgraduate teacher training courses, for the purposes of encouraging the elimination of stereotypes and strengthening the capacity for critical judgement, positive self-concept and self-esteem.Originality/valueThe study may be useful for carrying out specific and transversal university training interventions in postgraduate teacher training on gender equality aimed at promoting the elimination of stereotypes, the strengthening of critical judgement capacity, positive self-concept and self-esteem.

How female entrepreneurs build strong business relationships: the power of gender stereotypes

2021 ◽  
Vol ahead-of-print (ahead-of-print) ◽  
Author(s):  
Christina Constantinidis
Keyword(s):  
Gender Stereotypes ◽  
Network Theory ◽  
Research Field ◽  
Business Relationships ◽  
Longitudinal Case Study ◽  
Female Entrepreneurs ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Women’S Entrepreneurship ◽  
Social Feminism ◽  
Women's Entrepreneurship

PurposeAdopting a feminist constructionist perspective, this article proposes an analysis of the micro-level processes and dynamics of interpersonal, gendered, business relationships between female entrepreneurs, therefore constituting an extension to network theory in the women's entrepreneurship research field.Design/methodology/approachThe qualitative research builds on a single, longitudinal case study of a successful, 15-years long collaboration between two female entrepreneurs. Qualitative data were collected over two years, through formal and informal interviews with the entrepreneurs, observations and complementary documentation. The data analysis is based on a grounded theory and narrative approach.FindingsThe article proposes a thick narrative of the evolution of the dyadic business relationship, and reveals the power of gender role stereotypes in its progressive formation and development.Research limitations/implicationsThe article produces situated knowledge about female entrepreneurs and strong interpersonal business ties. The limitations relate to the specificity of the case analysed, representing the viewpoint of privileged, white, Western, educated and wealthy female entrepreneurs. It therefore does not account for the diversity of women's entrepreneurship.Originality/valueThe article enriches and extends social network theory in the women's entrepreneurship field through analysing how gender is done in discursive and social practices at the interpersonal level. The case also constitutes an illustration of social feminism in women's entrepreneurial practice, challenging dominant gender stereotypes.

The context of choice as boundary condition for gender differences in brand choice considerations

2018 ◽  
Vol 52 (5/6) ◽  
pp. 1280-1304 ◽  
Author(s):  
Enav Friedmann ◽  
Oded Lowengart
Keyword(s):  
Gender Differences ◽  
Gender Stereotypes ◽  
Latent Variables ◽  
Design Methodology ◽  
Real Life ◽  
Brand Choice ◽  
Marketing Strategies ◽  
Men And Women ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Practical Implications

Purpose Marketers often assume that functional, hedonic and socially conspicuous utilities in choosing a brand differ for men and women, thus different marketing strategies are required for each gender. To date, most of the research studies have used self-reported measures when shopping in general or in regard to a single product. The purpose of this research is to examine this question using two different contexts of brand choice: single choice evaluation (SCE) and brand selection context (BSC). This assessment will clarify whether male and female utilities when choosing a brand are indeed inherent and consistent. Design/methodology/approach Data were collected using surveys in three studies (N = 923). Conjoint analysis and ICLV (integrated choice and latent variables) models were examined. Findings BSC analysis that more closely mimics real-life contexts revealed that the consideration of these utilities is generally similar for men and women, while the SCE analysis showed significant gender differences. Practical implications In the context of choosing between brands, stereotypical gender targeting may be ineffective and might not be the best allocation of resources for marketers. Social implications Gender stereotypes in advertising seem to reconstruct differences that are not significant in a realistic brand selection context. Originality/value The context of choice was found to be a condition boundary for gender differences in brand choice considerations. Gender differences are not evolutionary or inherent.

The impact of trust and information networks on teachers’ job satisfaction

Kybernetes ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 49 (1) ◽  
pp. 200-228
Author(s):  
Elena Veretennik ◽  
Aino Kianto
Keyword(s):  
Job Satisfaction ◽  
Social Networks ◽  
Longitudinal Data ◽  
Developing Economies ◽  
Network Size ◽  
Vocational Schools ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Ego Networks ◽  
Network Analyses ◽  
The Impact

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to provide an understanding of how two types of informal social networks – those related to instrumental purposes of information sharing and those related to expressive purposes of interpersonal trust – impact teachers’ job satisfaction. Design/methodology/approach This paper uses social network analysis (SNA) degree and betweenness measures and job satisfaction scales from the Job Diagnostic Survey to collect longitudinal data from employees in one of the vocational schools in Saint Petersburg, Russia via structured interviews. Data on a total of 354 ties were analysed for 40 ego networks in 2018 and 33 ego networks in 2019. Findings The obtained results partially confirm the positive effect of teachers’ position in instrumental and expressive networks on job satisfaction. More centrally positioned teachers were more satisfied with peers and colleagues. They feel more secure in regard to job security, given the unique and multi-faceted knowledge they possess. Structural diversity of the network, as well as the category of a teacher (core subject or vocational subject), are found to explain the uneven evolvement of network size. The authors argue that the decrease in network size can be treated as a positive externality of changes in an informal network. The variation in teachers’ experience seems to explain both job satisfaction and network composition. Research limitations/implications The paper is based on a case study and its findings are limited to one particular organization. Nonetheless, the proposed SNA application is of potential value for similar organizations in terms of enhancing their capacity to benefit from networks. This study uses a structured interview to collect network data and job satisfaction data. However, overt observation or secondary data on written communication (e-mail, reports) may provide additional insights about the sought impact in the context of school. Practical implications Both teachers and managers benefit from the results of the paper. Educational policymakers and schools’ administration can exploit the bird’s eye view on an organization that SNA provides. By identifying focal employees and their attitude towards school, one receives an opportunity to prevent structural holes, organizational conflicts and uneven distribution of workload. Novice teachers can nurture their well-being by enhancing personal and instrumental social networks at the start of their careers. Experienced teachers benefit from social cooperation as it fosters the exchange of experience and skills, which is vital for job retention. Originality/value This research extends the understanding of the role of different kinds of social networks in teachers’ job satisfaction. The paper provides new insights into the SNA application to vocational schools and developing economies. Authors address teachers’ informal networks both from ego and complete network analyses to provide the holistic, yet detailed view. The use of longitudinal data advances the understanding of how personal and group networks develop over time.

GENDER DIFFERENCES IN ENTREPRENEURIAL RELATIONSHIPS WITHIN THE FRANCHISE CONTEXT

2014 ◽  
Vol 19 (04) ◽  
pp. 1450026 ◽  
Author(s):  
WILLIAM R. MEEK ◽  
DIANE M. SULLIVAN ◽  
JOHN MUELLER
Keyword(s):  
Gender Differences ◽  
Gender Roles ◽  
Business Model ◽  
Gender Discrimination ◽  
Future Research ◽  
Interpersonal Justice ◽  
Female Entrepreneurs ◽  
Male And Female ◽  
Feminine Gender ◽  
Potential Barriers

This study examines how entrepreneurial relationship variables such as trust, conflict, interpersonal justice (IJ) and satisfaction differ among a group of male and female franchisees. Results suggest differences exist between these two groups in relation to conflict, IJ and trust with their franchisor. These results are consistent with research on feminine gender roles and research that suggests female entrepreneurs are more relationship oriented throughout the entrepreneurial process. The results further make a case for the importance of empirically examining different entrepreneurial relationship variables in future research on gender and entrepreneurship, and illustrate the power of the franchising business model in breaking down potential barriers of gender discrimination for female entrepreneurs.

scholarly journals Social capital in Spain: Are there gender inequalities?

2013 ◽  
Vol 2 (1) ◽  
pp. 79 ◽  
Author(s):  
Celia Muñoz-Goy
Keyword(s):  
Gender Differences ◽  
Social Capital ◽  
Social Networks ◽  
Gender Roles ◽  
Social Participation ◽  
Representative Sample ◽  
The Other ◽  
Gender Inequalities ◽  
Traditional Gender Roles ◽  
Gender Groups

Social capital is an asset for individuals because it grants access to important resources embedded in their social networks. But social capital is not evenly distributed among different groups. Gender groups are analysed in this paper in order to examine if there are differences in diverse indicators of social capital and whether these possible differences remain when control variables are considered. The data used in this paper come from a representative sample of 3,400 people in Spain. The main results show gender differences in the access, mobilisation and type of social networks, as well as in the extent and type of social participation. However, these differences are mostly reduced for the groups in more advantageous social positions, which have the possibility to contact with greater and more varied groups, or which have been educated in less traditional gender roles. In general, gender inequalities in social capital remain for the other groups.

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