International environmental law and environmentally harmful space activities: learning from the past for a more sustainable future

2021 ◽  
Vol ahead-of-print (ahead-of-print) ◽  
Author(s):  
Sara Dalledonne
Keyword(s):  
Environmental Law ◽  
Outer Space ◽  
International Environmental Law ◽  
Planetary Protection ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Secondary Sources ◽  
Sustainable Future ◽  
Background Material ◽  
Near Future ◽  
Space Activities

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to present and analyse part of the relevant legal instruments currently available for regulating environmentally harmful space activities. Design/methodology/approach This paper opted for a functional research method combined with a comparative methodology. To make the argument, this paper relies on the contextual analysis of primary and secondary sources of law, instrument of soft law and the relevant background material (e.g. journal articles, textbooks, law reform and policy papers). Findings The central section will focus on the principles of international environmental law to outline their utility in the contemporary context. Finally, the conclusive part will point out the several ways in which the use of analogies can shape the outer space regime, especially concerning how those principles that are developed to safeguard the Earth, can also be extended for the protection of the space ecosystem. Originality/value Environmental hazards are rapidly increasing and the current international law and policy on planetary protection are inadequate to meet the challenges of the near future. There is no possibility of an environment-friendly and sustainable future if not strictly connecting it with a comprehensive and transparent acknowledgement of the human mistakes made on Earth. There are valuable lessons to be learned from our past, and it is under this perspective that the trend of polluting the outer space can be reverted. This paper fulfils an identified need to study the correlation between principles of international environmental law, space law and the current situation in the outer space.

Space accounting

2020 ◽  
Vol 33 (5) ◽  
pp. 991-1018
Author(s):  
Hank C. Alewine
Keyword(s):  
Operations Management ◽  
Outer Space ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Research Opportunities ◽  
Interdisciplinary Field ◽  
Challenges And Opportunities ◽  
Accounting Practitioners ◽  
Space Economy ◽  
Near Future ◽  
Space Activities

PurposeThe emerging and rapidly growing space economy warrants initial analysis from an accounting lens. This article explores accounting's role in entity transactions involving outer space activities by addressing two questions: (1) What accounting challenges exist within a developing space economy? (2) What accounting research opportunities exist to address these challenges?Design/methodology/approachBackground context introduces accounting scholars to the modern space economy and its economic infrastructure, providing insight on entity transactions involving activities in outer space. Detailed discussion and analysis of space accounting challenges and research opportunities reveal potential for a robust, interdisciplinary field in the accounting domain relevant for both practitioner and academic spheres. The article concludes with a summary investigation of the future exploration of accounting for space commerce.FindingsMany accounting challenges and opportunities exist now and in the near future for accounting practitioners and scholars to contribute towards humanity's ambitious plans to achieve a sustained presence on the moon sometime during the 2020s and on Mars in the 2030s. All of accounting's traditional subject-matter domain, as well as sustainability accounting matters, will be relied upon in these efforts. Interdisciplinary inquiries and problem solving will be critical for success, with particular collaboration needs existing between accounting and operations management scholars.Originality/valueThis is the first paper to explore accounting for the burgeoning space economy, and to offer insight and guidance on the development of an emerging accounting subfield: space accounting.

Space Debris Mitigation: Some Lessons from International Environmental Law

2021 ◽  
pp. 1-11
Author(s):  
Seyed Mohammad Hosseini ◽  
Fatemeh Fathpour ◽  
Subhrajit Chanda
Keyword(s):  
Soviet Union ◽  
Space Debris ◽  
Environmental Law ◽  
Outer Space ◽  
International Environmental Law ◽  
The Soviet Union ◽  
Earth Environment ◽  
Space Activities ◽  
Harmful Effects ◽  
Debris Mitigation

The Soviet Union successfully launched Sputnik I in 1957 which led to the era of space activities. Although human race has benefited numerous from space activities, unlimited use of outer space has caused pollutions in outer space and consequently at the earth environment. Space debris has become a threat to the security of space activities. Space debris is the most important of these pollutions that, not only creates numerous threats and risks for Orbiting Satellites, It also has harmful effects on earth environment. During drafting UN space treaties, little attention was paid to environmental problems and these treaties did not mentioned of space debris and its hazards. in recent decades, Ethics of Outer Space activities, paid more attention to the environment of outer space and environmental issue of space activities. Therefore, the experiences of environmental law and its preventive policies can be used to reduce the threat of space debris for peaceful space activities and the environment of space and planet Earth.

Atmosphere and Outer Space

2008 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ian H. Rowlands
Keyword(s):  
Environmental Problem ◽  
Global Climate ◽  
Environmental Law ◽  
Outer Space ◽  
Industrial Accidents ◽  
International Environmental Law ◽  
Legal Response ◽  
Transboundary Air Pollution ◽  
Transboundary Transport ◽  
Effective Development

What is ‘atmosphere’ and what is ‘outer space’? The term ‘atmosphere’ is sometimes used interchangeably with ‘air’. Moreover, it is often assumed that ‘outer space’ is simply the area above and beyond ‘air space’ (another term often used). While understandings such as these are certainly reasonable for most discussions, the effective development of international environmental law may well demand more precise definitions. This article provides an overview of key atmospheric and outer space environmental challenges that have been – and continue to be – addressed by international environmental law. It examines transboundary air pollution, ozone layer depletion, global climate change, and outer space. For each of these issue areas, the article describes a particular environmental problem (or set of environmental problems). It also reviews key elements of the international legal response (including especially significant agreements), focusing on innovative approaches taken as part of this response. In addition, the article discusses transboundary transport of industrial pollutants as well as major industrial accidents.

scholarly journals Alteration of Proteomes in First-Generation Cultures of Bacillus pumilus Spores Exposed to Outer Space

mSystems ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 4 (4) ◽  
Author(s):  
Abby J. Chiang ◽  
Ganesh Babu Malli Mohan ◽  
Nitin K. Singh ◽  
Parag A. Vaishampayan ◽  
Markus Kalkum ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Molecular Mechanisms ◽  
Bacillus Pumilus ◽  
Outer Space ◽  
Space Station ◽  
Ground Control ◽  
Bacterial Survival ◽  
Planetary Protection ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Atp Production ◽  
Enhanced Resistance

ABSTRACT Bacillus pumilus SAFR-032 was originally isolated from the Jet Propulsion Lab Spacecraft Assembly Facility and thoroughly characterized for its enhanced resistance to UV irradiation and oxidative stress. This unusual resistance of SAFR-032 is of particular concern in the context of planetary protection and calls for development of novel disinfection techniques to prevent extraterrestrial contamination. Previously, spores of SAFR-032 were exposed for 18 months to a variety of space conditions on board the International Space Station to investigate their resistance to Mars-like conditions and space travel. Here, proteomic characterization of vegetative SAFR-032 cells from space-surviving spores is presented in comparison to a ground control. Vegetative cells of the first passage were processed and subjected to quantitative proteomics using tandem mass tags. Approximately 60% of all proteins encoded by SAFR-032 were identified, and 301 proteins were differentially expressed among the strains. We found that proteins predicted to be involved in carbohydrate transport/metabolism and energy production/conversion had lower abundance than those of the ground control. For three proteins, we showed that the expected metabolic activities were decreased, as expected with direct enzymatic assays. This was consistent with a decrease of ATP production in the space-surviving strains. The same space-surviving strains showed increased abundance of proteins related to survival, growth advantage, and stress response. Such alterations in the proteomes provide insights into possible molecular mechanisms of B. pumilus SAFR-032 to adapt to and resist extreme extraterrestrial environments. IMPORTANCE Spore-forming bacteria are well known for their resistance to harsh environments and are of concern for spreading contamination to extraterrestrial bodies during future life detection missions. Bacillus pumilus has been regularly isolated from spacecraft-associated surfaces and exhibited unusual resistance to ultraviolet light and other sterilization techniques. A better understanding of the mechanisms of microbial survival and enhanced resistance is essential for developing novel disinfection protocols for the purpose of planetary protection. While genomic analyses did not reveal the unique characteristics that explain elevated UV resistance of space-exposed B. pumilus, the proteomics study presented here provided intriguing insight on key metabolic changes. The observed proteomics aberrations reveal a complex biological phenomenon that plays a role in bacterial survival and adaptation under long-term exposure to outer space. This adaptive ability of microorganisms needs to be considered by those tasked with eliminating forward contamination.

scholarly journals New Boundaries of the Environmental Law of Ukraine

2018 ◽  
Vol 5 (2) ◽  
pp. 17-24
Author(s):  
Nataliia Malysheva
Keyword(s):  
Environmental Law ◽  
Outer Space ◽  
Historical Context ◽  
Environmental Safety ◽  
Environmental Legislation ◽  
Foreign Experience ◽  
National Space ◽  
Space Activities

The article shows the necessity of the newest vector of environmental law development, connected with the expansion of its spatial base to the near-Earth outer space. The historical context of the problem is being investigated, beginning with the first UN treaties on outer space. The gradual penetration of certain principles, provisions and requirements for the environmental safety of space activities into the national space and environmental legislation of space faring countries is analyzed. Taking into account foreign experience, the ways of the Ukrainian environmental law development with regard to involve outer space in the sphere of its protection are outlined.

Legal Consequences of the Pollution of Outer Space with Space Debris

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Peter Stubbe
Keyword(s):  
International Law ◽  
Space Debris ◽  
Environmental Law ◽  
Outer Space ◽  
Planetary Science ◽  
Absorption Capacity ◽  
Space Environment ◽  
Forthcoming Article ◽  
Management Regime ◽  
Space Activities

This is an advance summary of a forthcoming article in the Oxford Encyclopedia of Planetary Science. Please check back later for the full article.Space debris has grown to be a significant problem for outer space activities. The remnants of human activities in space are very diverse; they can be tiny paint flakes, all sorts of fragments, or entirely intact—but otherwise nonfunctional spacecraft and rocket bodies. The amount of debris is increasing at a growing pace, thus raising the risk of collision with operational satellites. Due to the relative high velocities involved in on-orbit collisions, their consequences are severe; collisions lead to significant damage or the complete destruction of the affected spacecraft. Protective measures and collision avoidance have thus become a major concern for spacecraft operators. The pollution of space with debris must, however, not only be seen as an unfavorable circumstance that accompanies space activities and increases the costs and complexity of outer space activities. Beyond this rather technical perspective, the presence of man-made, nonfunctional objects in space represents a global environmental concern. Similar to the patterns of other environmental problems on Earth, debris generation appears to have surpassed the absorption capacity of the space environment. Studies indicate that the evolution of the space object environment has crossed the tipping point to a runaway situation in which an increasing number of collisions―mostly among debris―leads to an uncontrolled population growth. It is thus in the interest of all mankind to address the debris problem in order to preserve the space environment for future generations.International space law protects the space environment. Article IX of the Outer Space Treaty obligates States to avoid the harmful contamination of outer space. The provision corresponds to the obligation to protect the environment in areas beyond national jurisdiction under the customary “no harm” rule of general environmental law. These norms are applicable to space debris and establish the duty not to pollute outer space by limiting the generation of debris. They become all the more effective when the principles of sustainable development are taken into account, which infuse considerations of intra- as well as inter-generational justice into international law. In view of the growing debris pollution and its related detrimental effects, it is obvious that questions of liability and responsibility will become increasingly relevant. The Liability Convention offers a remedy for victims having suffered damage caused by space debris. The launching State liability that it establishes is even absolute for damage occurring on the surface of the Earth. The secondary rules of international responsibility law go beyond mere compensation: States can also be held accountable for the environmental pollution event itself, entailing a number of consequential obligations, among them―under certain circumstances―a duty to active debris removal. While international law is, therefore, generally effective in addressing the debris problem, growing use and growing risks necessitate the establishment of a comprehensive traffic management regime for outer space. It would strengthen the rule of law in outer space and ensure the sustainability of space utilization.

Situating real estate law for the new outer-space economy

2021 ◽  
Vol ahead-of-print (ahead-of-print) ◽  
Author(s):  
Rebecca Leshinsky
Keyword(s):  
Real Estate ◽  
Early Stage ◽  
Outer Space ◽  
Space Environment ◽  
The Moon ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Human Needs ◽  
Goods And Services ◽  
Space Activities ◽  
Estate Law

Purpose With current commercial space activities accelerating, the purpose of this paper is to contexualise enlivening the discipline of real estate law for outer space. Design/methodology/approach Drawing on essential topics in real estate law, contracts and insurance, this paper discusses these themes in their terrestrial and extra-terrestrial contexts. Findings Real estate law for the outer space environment carries many similarities to real estate law but also significant differences. At this early stage in human space exploration and travel, there is a need to deal more with goods/chattels (property assets); however, this will change as land – the Moon, asteroids, planets – are made available for mining and other activities. Given outer space activities carry high risk for spacecraft and humans, there are reciprocal lessons for real estate law and practice. Practical implications Real estate law for outer space is an area already in existence. However, as access to space develops further, particularly with inevitable human presence on the Moon and exploration to Mars, real estate law will also grow in importance and sophistication. Real estate law for outer space relies on contract and property law. These are levers for commercial activities, and a further array of complex law and governance – the Outer Space Treaties, international and national law, international custom, guidelines, codes and standards. Real estate law for space will require an interdisciplinary and global approach in an era where human needs are already reliant on goods and services derived from space, as well as in the quest for exploration beyond the earth and the moon itself. Originality/value The time is ripe for space law to be taken into nuanced areas, with real estate law being an important step. Entrenched into the combined real estate and outer space disciplinary context must be consideration of the environment (earth and beyond), sustainability, heritage protection issues, etc., as well as ensuring outer space has equitable opportunities for all nations and citizens.

scholarly journals Planetary Protection in the New Space Era: Science and Governance

2020 ◽  
Vol 7 ◽  
Author(s):  
Thomas Cheney ◽  
Christopher Newman ◽  
Karen Olsson-Francis ◽  
Scott Steele ◽  
Victoria Pearson ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Outer Space ◽  
Scientific Basis ◽  
Earth Orbit ◽  
Planetary Protection ◽  
Protection Policy ◽  
Celestial Bodies ◽  
Outer Space Treaty ◽  
High Regard ◽  
New Space ◽  
Space Activities

Committee of Space Research’s Planetary Protection Policy is a triumph of technocratic governance in the global sphere. The Policy is produced by a group of scientific experts and subsequently enjoys high regard among the scientific and space community. However, as Committee of Space Research is an independent organization without any legal mandate the Planetary Protection Policy is an example of so-called “soft law” or a non-binding international instrument, in short, no one is under any legal obligation to comply with them. The policy is linked to Article IX of the Outer Space Treaty and its provision calling for the avoidance of “harmful contamination” of the Moon and other celestial bodies. While space activities beyond Earth orbit have been the exclusive preserve of government scientific space agencies this has posed little problem. However as private and “non-science” space activities proliferate and begin to spread their reach beyond Earth orbit, the Planetary Protection Policy is being tested. This paper will examine the challenges of developing and maintaining an effective planetary protection regime in this “New Space” era. This will involve looking at the existing policies, as well as the governance framework they sit within. However, it is also necessary to consider and understand the scientific basis not just for the specifics of the policy itself but the necessity of it. Finally, this paper will consider whether a broader “environmental” framework is needed as space activities diversity in type and location.

International Environmental Law

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Pierre-Marie Dupuy ◽  
Jorge E. Viñuales
Keyword(s):  
Environmental Law ◽  
International Environmental Law
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