An Analysis of the Pacing Strategies Adopted by Elite Athletes During Track Cycling

Purpose:To investigate pacing strategy during the 1-km time trial (TT) and 3- and 4-km individual pursuit (IP), in elite cyclists.Methods:Total times and intermediate times were obtained from the 2007 and 2008 cycling World Championships in the 1-km TT and 2006, 2007, and 2008 World Championships in the 3- and 4-km IP. Data were analyzed to examine the pacing-profiles employed and pacing strategies of “slow” and “fast” performances.Results:Similar pacing-profiles were evident in each event, which were characterized by an initial acceleration followed by a progressive decay in split times. In the 1-km TT, the first 250-m split time was a primary determinant of total time, whereas the rate of fatigue over the remainder of the race did not discriminate between performances. The first 250-m split time was also related to total time in the 3- and 4-km IP, although to a lesser extent than in the 1-km TT, whereas the ability to maintain a consistent pacing-profile was of increased importance. There were differences in the pacing strategies of slow and fast performances in the 3- and 4-km IP, with slow performances characterized by an overly quick start with a concomitant slowing at the finish.Conclusion:The pacing profiles adopted were similar to the optimal pacing strategies proposed in simulation models of cycling performance. However, in the 3-km and 4-km IP small alterations in pacing strategy appear to be important, at the elite level.

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The Ingestion of 39 or 64 g·hr−1 of Carbohydrate is Equally Effective at Improving Endurance Exercise Performance in Cyclists

International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism ◽

10.1123/ijsnem.2014-0134 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 25 (3) ◽

pp. 285-292 ◽

Cited By ~ 8

Author(s):

Michael L. Newell ◽

Angus M. Hunter ◽

Claire Lawrence ◽

Kevin D. Tipton ◽

Stuart D. R. Galloway

Keyword(s):

Power Output ◽

Statistical Significance ◽

Time Trial ◽

Cycling Performance ◽

Constant Load ◽

Peak Power Output ◽

Task Completion ◽

Intake Rate ◽

Mean Power ◽

Pacing Strategy

In an investigator-blind, randomized cross-over design, male cyclists (mean± SD) age 34.0 (± 10.2) years, body mass 74.6 (±7.9) kg, stature 178.3 (±8.0) cm, peak power output (PPO) 393 (±36) W, and VO2max 62 (±9) ml·kg−1min−1 training for more than 6 hr/wk for more than 3y (n = 20) completed four experimental trials. Each trial consisted of a 2-hr constant load ride at 95% of lactate threshold (185 ± 25W) then a work-matched time trial task (~30min at 70% of PPO). Three commercially available carbohydrate (CHO) beverages, plus a control (water), were administered during the 2-hr ride providing 0, 20, 39, or 64g·hr−1 of CHO at a fluid intake rate of 1L·hr−1. Performance was assessed by time to complete the time trial task, mean power output sustained, and pacing strategy used. Mean task completion time (min:sec ± SD) for 39g·hr−1 (34:19.5 ± 03:07.1, p = .006) and 64g·hr−1 (34:11.3 ± 03:08.5 p = .004) of CHO were significantly faster than control (37:01.9 ± 05:35.0). The mean percentage improvement from control was −6.1% (95% CI: −11.3 to −1.0) and −6.5% (95% CI: −11.7 to −1.4) in the 39 and 64g·hr−1 trials respectively. The 20g·hr−1 (35:17.6 ± 04:16.3) treatment did not reach statistical significance compared with control (p = .126) despite a mean improvement of −3.7% (95% CI −8.8−1.5%). No further differences between CHO trials were reported. No interaction between CHO dose and pacing strategy occurred. 39 and 64g·hr−1 of CHO were similarly effective at improving endurance cycling performance compared with a 0g·hr−1 control in our trained cyclists.

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Protein intake in the early recovery period after exhaustive exercise improves performance the following day

Journal of Applied Physiology ◽

10.1152/japplphysiol.01132.2017 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 125 (6) ◽

pp. 1731-1742 ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

Ove Sollie ◽

Per B. Jeppesen ◽

Daniel S. Tangen ◽

Fredrik Jernerén ◽

Birgitte Nellemann ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Endurance Exercise ◽

Recovery Period ◽

Time Trial ◽

Cycling Performance ◽

The Body ◽

Exhaustive Exercise ◽

Mean Power ◽

Early Recovery ◽

Carbohydrate Ingestion ◽

Elite Cyclists

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of protein and carbohydrate ingestion during early recovery from exhaustive exercise on performance after 18-h recovery. Eight elite cyclists (V̇o2max: 74.0 ± 1.6 ml·kg−1·min−1) completed two exercise and diet interventions in a double-blinded, randomized, crossover design. Participants cycled first at 73% of V̇o2max (W73%) followed by 1-min intervals at 90% of V̇o2max until exhaustion. During the first 2 h of recovery, participants ingested either 1.2 g carbohydrate·kg−1·h−1 (CHO) or 0.8 g carbohydrate + 0.4 g protein·kg−1·h−1 (CHO + PROT). The diet during the remaining recovery period was similar for both interventions and adjusted to body weight. After an 18-h recovery, cycling performance was assessed with a 10-s sprint test, 30 min of cycling at W73%, and a cycling time trial (TT). The TT was 8.5% faster (41:53 ± 1:51 vs. 45:26 ± 1:32 min; P < 0.03) after CHO + PROT compared with CHO. Mean power output during the sprints was 3.7% higher in CHO + PROT compared with CHO (1,063 ± 54 vs. 1,026 ± 53 W; P = 0.01). Nitrogen balance in the recovery period was negative in CHO and neutral in CHO + PROT (−82.4 ± 11.5 vs. 7.0 ± 15.4 mg/kg; P < 0.01). In conclusion, TT and sprint performances were improved 18 h after exhaustive cycling by CHO + PROT supplementation during the first 2 h of recovery compared with isoenergetic CHO supplementation. Our results indicate that intake of carbohydrate plus protein after exhaustive endurance exercise more rapidly converts the body from a catabolic to an anabolic state than carbohydrate alone, thus speeding recovery and improving subsequent cycling performance. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Prolonged high intensity endurance exercise depends on glycogen utilization and high oxidative capacity. Still, exhaustion develops and effective recovery strategies are required to compete in multiday stage races. We show that coingestion of protein and carbohydrate during the first 2 h of recovery is superior to isoenergetic intake of carbohydrate to stimulate recovery, and improves both endurance time-trial and 10-s sprint performance the following day in elite cyclists.

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Influence of Different Performance Levels on Pacing Strategy During the Women’s World Championship Marathon Race

International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance ◽

10.1123/ijspp.8.3.279 ◽

2013 ◽

Vol 8 (3) ◽

pp. 279-285 ◽

Cited By ~ 65

Author(s):

Andrew Renfree ◽

Alan St Clair Gibson

Keyword(s):

Decision Making ◽

Psychological Factors ◽

Relative Speed ◽

Performance Levels ◽

World Championship ◽

Marathon Race ◽

Pacing Strategy ◽

Pacing Strategies ◽

Elite Level ◽

Group 1

Purpose:To analyze pacing strategies displayed by athletes achieving differing levels of performance during an elite-level marathon race.Methods:Competitors in the 2009 IAAF Women’s Marathon Championship were split into groups 1, 2, 3, and 4 comprising the first, second, third, and fourth 25% of finishers, respectively. Final, intermediate, and personal-best (PB) times of finishers were converted to mean speeds, and relative speed (% of PB speed) was calculated for intermediate segments.Results:Mean PB speed decreased from groups 1 to 4, and speeds maintained in the race were 98.5% ± 1.8%, 97.4% ± 3.2%, 95.0% ± 3.1%, and 92.4% ± 4.4% of PB speed for groups 1–4 respectively. Group 1 was fastest in all segments, and differences in speed between groups increased throughout the race. Group 1 ran at lower relative speeds than other groups for the first two 5-km segments but higher relative speeds after 35 km. Significant differences (P < .01) in the percentage of PB speed maintained were observed between groups 1 and 4 and groups 2 and 4 in all segments after 20 km and groups 3 and 4 from 20 to 25 km and 30 to 35 km.Conclusions:Group 1 athletes achieved better finishing times relative to their PB than athletes in other groups, who selected unsustainable initial speeds resulting in subsequent significant losses of speed. It is suggested that psychological factors specific to a major competitive event influenced decision making by athletes, and poor decisions resulted in final performances inferior to those expected based on PB times.

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Physiological Profile of an Uphill Time Trial in Elite Cyclists

International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance ◽

10.1123/ijspp.2016-0768 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 13 (3) ◽

pp. 268-273 ◽

Cited By ~ 3

Author(s):

Ana B. Peinado ◽

Nuria Romero-Parra ◽

Miguel A. Rojo-Tirado ◽

Rocío Cupeiro ◽

Javier Butragueño ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Power Output ◽

Perceived Exertion ◽

Lactate Concentration ◽

Time Trial ◽

Cycling Performance ◽

Mean Power ◽

Road Cycling ◽

And Performance ◽

Mean Power Output ◽

Elite Cyclists

Context: While a number of studies have researched road-cycling performance, few have attempted to investigate the physiological response in field conditions. Purpose: To describe the physiological and performance profile of an uphill time trial (TT) frequently used in cycling competitions. Methods: Fourteen elite road cyclists (mean ± SD age 25 ± 6 y, height 174 ± 4.2 cm, body mass 64.4 ± 6.1 kg, fat mass 7.48% ± 2.82%) performed a graded exercise test to exhaustion to determine maximal parameters. They then completed a field-based uphill TT in a 9.2-km first-category mountain pass with a 7.1% slope. Oxygen uptake (VO2), power output, heart rate (HR), lactate concentration, and perceived-exertion variables were measured throughout the field-based test. Results: During the uphill TT, mean power output and velocity were 302 ± 7 W (4.2 ± 0.1 W/kg) and 18.7 ± 1.6 km/h, respectively. Mean VO2 and HR were 61.6 ± 2.0 mL · kg−1 · min−1 and 178 ± 2 beats/min, respectively. Values were significantly affected by the 1st, 2nd, 6th, and final kilometers (P < .05). Lactate concentration and perceived exertion were 10.87 ± 1.12 mmol/L and 19.1 ± 0.1, respectively, at the end of the test, being significantly different from baseline measures. Conclusion: The studied uphill TT is performed at 90% of maximum HR and VO2 and 70% of maximum power output. To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study assessing cardiorespiratory parameters combined with measures of performance, perceived exertion, and biochemical variables during a field-based uphill TT in elite cyclists.

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Pacing Strategies of Inexperienced Children During Repeated 800 m Individual Time-Trials and Simulated Competition

Pediatric Exercise Science ◽

10.1123/pes.25.2.198 ◽

2013 ◽

Vol 25 (2) ◽

pp. 198-211 ◽

Cited By ~ 10

Author(s):

Danielle Lambrick ◽

Alex Rowlands ◽

Thomas Rowland ◽

Roger Eston

Keyword(s):

Perceived Exertion ◽

Time Trial ◽

Ratings Of Perceived Exertion ◽

Pacing Strategy ◽

Performance Time ◽

Pacing Strategies ◽

Graded Exercise ◽

Laboratory Trial ◽

Overall Performance ◽

The Difference

Prior experience of fatiguing tasks is considered essential to establishing an optimal pacing strategy. This study examined the pacing behavior of inexperienced children during self-paced, 800 m running, both individually and within a competitive environment. Thirteen children (aged 9−11 y) completed a graded-exercise test to volitional exhaustion on a treadmill (laboratory trial), followed by three self-paced, individual 800 m time-trials (Trials 1−3) and one self-paced, competitive 800 m time-trial (Trial 4) on an outdoor athletics track. Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and heart rate (HR) were measured throughout all trials. Overall performance time improved from Trial 1−3 (250.1 ± 50.4 s & 242.4 ± 51.5 s, respectively, p < .017). The difference in overall performance time between Trials 3 and 4 (260.5 ± 54.2 s) was approaching significance (p = .06). The pacing strategy employed from the outset was consistent across all trials. These findings dispute the notion that an optimal pacing strategy is learned with exercise experience or training.

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A Novel Approach of Modelling and Predicting Track Cycling Sprint Performance

Applied Sciences ◽

10.3390/app112412098 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 11 (24) ◽

pp. 12098

Author(s):

Anna Katharina Dunst ◽

René Grüneberger

Keyword(s):

Mathematical Model ◽

Linear Regression Analysis ◽

Performance Testing ◽

Muscular Activity ◽

Time Trial ◽

Cycling Performance ◽

Model Parameters ◽

Contributing Factors ◽

Cycling Time Trial ◽

Track Cycling

In cycling, performance models are used to investigate factors that determine performance and to optimise competition results. We present an innovative and easily applicable mathematical model describing time-resolved approaches for both the physical aspects of tractional resistance and the physiological side of propelling force generated by muscular activity and test its validity to reproduce and forecast time trials in track cycling. Six elite track cyclists completed a special preparation and two sprint time trials in an official velodrome under continuous measurement of crank force and cadence. Fatigue-free force-velocity profiles were calculated, and their fatigue-induced changes were determined by non-linear regression analysis using a monoexponential equation at a constant slope. Model parameters were calibrated based on pre-exercise performance testing and the first of the two time-trials and then used to predict the performance of the second sprint. Measured values for power output and cycling velocity were compared to the modelled data. The modelled results were highly correlated to the measured values (R2>0.99) without any difference between runs (p>0.05; d<0.1). Our mathematical model can accurately describe sprint track cycling time trial performance. It is simple enough to be used in practice yet sufficiently accurate to predict highly dynamic maximal sprint performances. It can be employed for the evaluation of completed runs, to forecast expected results with different setups, and to study various contributing factors and quantify their effect on sprint cycling performance.

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The Reliability of 4-Minute and 20-Minute Time Trials and Their Relationships to Functional Threshold Power in Trained Cyclists

International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance ◽

10.1123/ijspp.2018-0100 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 14 (1) ◽

pp. 38-45 ◽

Cited By ~ 6

Author(s):

Martin J. MacInnis ◽

Aaron C.Q. Thomas ◽

Stuart M. Phillips

Keyword(s):

Intraclass Correlation ◽

Performance Testing ◽

Time Trial ◽

Cycling Performance ◽

Threshold Power ◽

Mean Power ◽

Typical Error ◽

The Mean ◽

Mean Power Output ◽

Elite Cyclists

Purpose: The mean power output (MPO) from a 60-min time trial (TT)—also known as functional threshold power, or FTP—is a standard measure of cycling performance; however, shorter performance tests are desirable to reduce the burden of performance testing. The authors sought to determine the reliability of 4- and 20-min TTs and the extent to which these short TTs were associated with 60-min MPO. Methods: Trained male cyclists (n = 8; age = 25 [5] y; = 71 [5] mL/kg/min) performed two 4-min TTs, two 20-min TTs, and one 60-min TT. Critical power (CP) was estimated from 4- and 20-min TTs. The typical error of the mean (TEM) and intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) were calculated to assess reliability, and R2 values were calculated to assess relationships with 60-min MPO. Results: Pairs of 4-min TTs (mean: 417 [SD: 45] W vs 412 [49] W, P = .25; TEM = 8.1 W; ICC = .98), 20-min TTs (342 [36] W vs 344 [33] W, P = .41; TEM = 4.6 W; ICC = .99), and CP estimates (323 [35] W vs 328 [32] W, P = .25; TEM = 6.5; ICC = .98) were reliable. The 4-min MPO (R2 = .95), 20-min MPO (R2 = .92), estimated CP (R2 = .82), and combination of the 4- and 20-min MPO (adjusted R2 = .98) were strongly associated with the 60-min MPO (309 [26] W). Conclusion: The 4- and 20-min TTs appear useful for assessing performance in trained, if not elite, cyclists.

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Effect of Recovery Interventions on Cycling Performance and Pacing Strategy in the Heat

International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance ◽

10.1123/ijspp.2012-0366 ◽

2014 ◽

Vol 9 (2) ◽

pp. 240-248 ◽

Cited By ~ 6

Author(s):

Kevin De Pauw ◽

Bart Roelands ◽

Jef Vanparijs ◽

Romain Meeusen

Keyword(s):

Power Output ◽

Cold Water ◽

Water Immersion ◽

Thermal Strain ◽

Time Trial ◽

Cycling Performance ◽

Cold Water Immersion ◽

Active Recovery ◽

Maximal Power Output ◽

Pacing Strategy

Purpose:To determine the effect of active recovery (AR), passive rest (PR), and cold-water immersion (CWI) after 90 min of intensive cycling on a subsequent 12-min time trial (TT2) and the applied pacing strategy in TT2.Methods:After a maximal test and familiarization trial, 9 trained male subjects (age 22 ± 3 y, VO2max 62.1 ± 5.3 mL · min−1 · kg−1) performed 3 experimental trials in the heat (30°C). Each trial consisted of 2 exercise tasks separated by 1 h. The first was a 60-min constant-load trial at 55% of the maximal power output followed by a 30-min time trial (TT1). The second comprised a 12-min simulated time trial (TT2). After TT1, AR, PR, or CWI was applied for 15 min.Results:No significant TT2 performance differences were observed, but a 1-sample t test (within each condition) revealed different pacing strategies during TT2. CWI resulted in an even pacing strategy, while AR and PR resulted in a gradual decline of power output after the onset of TT2 (P ≤ .046). During recovery, AR and CWI showed a trend toward faster blood lactate ([BLa]) removal, but during TT2 significantly higher [BLa] was only observed after CWI compared with PR (P = .011).Conclusion:The pacing strategy during subsequent cycling performance in the heat is influenced by the application of different postexercise recovery interventions. Although power was not significantly altered between groups, CWI enabled a differently shaped power profile, likely due to decreased thermal strain.

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