Prevalence and sex-specific patterns of metabolic syndrome in rural Uganda

Background and aimsIn sub-Saharan Africa, infectious diseases are still the leading causes of mortality; however, this may soon be surpassed by non-communicable illnesses, namely hypertension, diabetes and cardiovascular disease. This study determined the prevalence and patterns of metabolic syndrome and cardio-risk factors in men and women in rural Uganda.MethodsA household-based, cross-sectional survey was carried out following the WHO STEP-wise approach to surveillance. It included demographic and lifestyle questionnaires, anthropometric measurements and biochemical analyses. Of the 200 randomly recruited participants, 183 successfully completed two steps of the study and 161 provided blood samples.ResultsData were collected from 183 adults, aged 18–69 years; 62% were female. Based on the National Cholesterol Education Program-Adult Treatment Panel-III criteria, the prevalence of metabolic syndrome was 19.1% (95% CI 14.0 to 22.5). Elevated fasting plasma glucose was observed in 14.2% (95% CI 9.1 to 19.3) of participants, hypertriglyceridaemia in 16.9% (95% CI 12.1 to 23.1); hypertension in 36.1% (95% CI 29.0 to 43.0) and 52.5% (95% CI 45.2 to 59.6) had low HDL (high-density lipoprotein) cholesterol. Abdominal obesity was found in 24.6% (95% CI 18.8 to 31.4) of participants. Sex disparities were significant for several risk factors. Females had significantly higher prevalence of abdominal obesity (38.6% vs 1.5% in males, p=0.001) and twice the rates of low HDL (65.8% vs 30.4%, p=0.001). Men tended to have higher but not significant rates of hypertension (42.0% vs 32.5%) and smoked significantly more than women (49.3% vs 21.1%, p<0.001). Alcohol consumption was also higher in men (55.1% vs 18.4%, p<0.001) and quantities consumed were approximately three times greater than in females (p<0.001).ConclusionMetabolic syndrome exists at worrying rates in the rural Ugandan population. Sex disparities are evident in risk factor prevalence, reflecting physiological variables and deeply entrenched cultural and lifestyle norms.

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The Prevalence of Metabolic Syndrome in Iranian Firefighters

Annals of Military and Health Sciences Research ◽

10.5812/amh.101972 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 18 (2) ◽

Author(s):

Farzaneh Montazerifar ◽

Mansour Karajibani ◽

Razieh Hosseini ◽

Aliyeh Tafazzoli ◽

Ahmad Bolouri

Keyword(s):

Risk Factors ◽

Metabolic Syndrome ◽

Abdominal Obesity ◽

Work Experience ◽

Healthy Lifestyle ◽

Density Lipoprotein ◽

Fire Department ◽

Metabolic Risk Factors ◽

Metabolic Risk ◽

Cross Sectional

Background: Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is closely related to the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD), particularly in stressful occupations. Firefighting is a hazardous profession and is associated with high metabolic risk. However, limited studies on firefighters are available. Objectives: This study aimed to determine the prevalence of MetS among firefighters in Zahedan city, Iran. Methods: This cross-sectional study was performed on 140 firefighters (age range, 16 - 55 years) employed at the fire department in Zahedan city, southeast Iran. Anthropometric characteristics and metabolic risk parameters, including blood pressure (BP), fasting blood sugar (FBS), and lipid profile were measured, and the prevalence of metabolic syndrome was assessed based on National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III (NCEP ATP III) criteria. Results: MetS was presented in 47 (33.6%) of the firefighters. Among the metabolic risk factors, abdominal obesity (87.1%), low-high density lipoprotein (HDL-C) (62.1%), and hypertriglyceridemia (61.4%) were more prevalent. Moreover, a significant increasing trend was found with increasing age and work experience (both, P = 0.05). However, no significant differences were found for the remaining metabolic risk factors. Conclusions: The findings showed that about one-third of the firefighters had MetS. Age, abdominal obesity, and dyslipidemia were independent risk factors for MS in the firefighters. Thus, efforts should be undertaken to implement healthy lifestyle promotion programs for firefighters.

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Sex-based differences in and risk factors for metabolic syndrome in adults aged 40 years and above in Northeast China: Results from the cross-sectional China national stroke screening survey

BMJ Open ◽

10.1136/bmjopen-2020-038671 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 11 (3) ◽

pp. e038671

Author(s):

Feng-E Li ◽

Fu-Liang Zhang ◽

Peng Zhang ◽

Dong Liu ◽

Hao-Yuan Liu ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Risk Factors ◽

Metabolic Syndrome ◽

Junior High School ◽

Rural Areas ◽

Northeast China ◽

Density Lipoprotein ◽

High Body Mass Index ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Sample Data ◽

High Incidence

ObjectivesLow levels of income and education are risk factors for metabolic syndrome in the population of Northeast China, which has a high incidence of metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular diseases. This study aimed to determine sex-based differences associated with the prevalence of and risk factors for metabolic syndrome among people older than 40 years in Northeast China; this has not been previously investigated.DesignThis study analysed a portion of the large sample data of the national cross-sectional screening of China from 2016. Metabolic syndrome was defined as the presence of any three of the following five risk factors: abnormal waist circumference; high levels of triglycerides, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol or fasting plasma glucose; and elevated blood pressure. Multiple regression analysis was used to investigate sex-based differences in the prevalence of, and risk factors for metabolic syndrome.SettingThe study was conducted in Dehui City, Jilin Province, China.ParticipantsA total of 4052 participants with complete questionnaire information and laboratory examination results were included.ResultsThe prevalence of metabolic syndrome was 50.1% overall (38.4% in men and 57.9% in women; p<0.001). High body mass index and hip circumference were associated with metabolic syndrome in both sexes. In addition, physical inactivity (OR and 95% CI 1.44 (1.06 to 1.97); p=0.022) in men and advanced age (OR and 95% CI 1.54 (1.15 to 2.04); p=0.003) in women were factors associated with metabolic syndrome. Women with junior high school education or above and living in rural areas were less likely to have metabolic syndrome. For men, education and rural or urban living had no association with metabolic syndrome.ConclusionsThe risk factors for metabolic syndrome have similarities and differences in different sexes; thus, the prevention and treatment of metabolic syndrome should be based on these sex differences.

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Disease burden and associated risk factors for metabolic syndrome among adults in Ethiopia

BMC Cardiovascular Disorders ◽

10.1186/s12872-019-1201-5 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 19 (1) ◽

Cited By ~ 4

Author(s):

Samrawit Solomon ◽

Wudeneh Mulugeta

Keyword(s):

Risk Factors ◽

Metabolic Syndrome ◽

Low Income ◽

Disease Burden ◽

Addis Ababa ◽

Treatment Strategies ◽

Density Lipoprotein ◽

World Health ◽

Low Income Countries ◽

Cross Sectional

Abstract Background Metabolic Syndrome (MetS) and Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are alarmingly increasing in low-income countries. Yet, very limited is known about the prevalence and risk factors associated with MetS in Ethiopia. Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted among adult outpatients (N = 325) at St. Paul’s Hospital Millennium Medical College in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. The study was conducted in accordance with STEPwise approach of the World Health Organization. MetS was defined using modified National Cholesterol Education Program’s Adult Treatment Panel III criteria. Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed. Results The overall prevalence of MetS was 20.3%. Among the 325 participants, 76.9% had at least one MetS components. Reduced high-density lipoprotein cholesterol was the most common MetS component at 48.6%, followed by elevated blood pressure at 36.3%, and elevated fasting glucose at 32.6%. Older age (odds ratio [OR] = 4.15; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.43–12.04), Amhara ethnicity (OR = 2.36; 95%CI = 1.14–4.88), overweight status (OR = 2.21; 95%CI = 1.03–4.71), higher income (OR = 3.31; 95%CI = 1.11–9.84) and higher education levels (OR = 2.19; 95%CI = 1.05–4.59) were risk factors for MetS. Conclusion The disease burden of MetS among Ethiopians is high, and is associated with age, weight, income, education and ethnicity. Comprehensive screening and assessment of MetS is needed along with effective preventive and treatment strategies in low-income countries, such as Ethiopia.

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Prevalence of Abdominal Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome in Children and Adolescents: A Community Based Cross-Sectional Study

Iranian Journal of Public Health ◽

10.18502/ijph.v49i2.3106 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Nastaran AHMADI ◽

Seyed Mahmood SADR ◽

Mohammad Reza MOHAMMADI ◽

Masoud MIRZAEI ◽

Amir Hooshang MEHRPARVAR ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Metabolic Syndrome ◽

Children And Adolescents ◽

Abdominal Obesity ◽

Adult Population ◽

International Diabetes Federation ◽

Hdl Cholesterol ◽

National Study ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Common Component ◽

Low Hdl

Background: Although the prevalence of abdominal obesity and metabolic syndrome has been widely studied in the adult population, little is known about it in children and adolescents especially in developing countries. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of abdominal obesity and metabolic syndrome among children and adolescents in Yazd Greater Area, Iran; over the period of 2016-2017. Methods: This study was part of a larger national study with a cross-sectional design. Using multistage cluster random sampling method, 1035 children, and adolescents of both sexes aged 6-18 yr were randomly selected from rural and urban districts in Yazd Greater Area, Iran. Components of metabolic syndrome, and anthropometry measured in the standard situation. Results: The prevalence of abdominal obesity in children 6-10 yr old was 13.2% in boys versus 24.7% in girls. The overall prevalence of metabolic syndrome according to International Diabetes Federation (IDF) criteria in adolescents aged 10-18 yr old was 7.6% (9.4% in boys). The most prevalent metabolic syndrome components were low HDL-cholesterol (56.2%) and abdominal obesity (27.8%). Conclusion: Comparatively, the prevalence of metabolic syndrome in Yazd is high. Low HDL-cholesterol levels and abdominal obesity were the most common component, and family history of heart disease, BMI, and male gender were the main determinants of metabolic syndrome in adolescents.

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Prevalence of impaired renal function among rural and urban populations: findings of a cross-sectional study in Malawi

Wellcome Open Research ◽

10.12688/wellcomeopenres.15255.1 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 4 ◽

pp. 92 ◽

Cited By ~ 3

Author(s):

Wisdom P Nakanga ◽

Josephine E Prynn ◽

Louis Banda ◽

Robert Kalyesubula ◽

Laurie A Tomlinson ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Risk Factors ◽

Renal Function ◽

Urban Areas ◽

Impaired Renal Function ◽

Herbal Medicines ◽

Epidemiological Studies ◽

Sub Saharan Africa ◽

Cross Sectional Survey ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Rural And Urban

Background: Sub-Saharan Africa faces region-specific risk factors for chronic kidney disease (CKD), such as nephrotoxic herbal medicines, antiretroviral therapy and infections, in addition to hypertension and diabetes. However, large epidemiological studies from this area are scarce. Methods: In a cross-sectional survey of non-communicable diseases, we conducted a prevalence sub-study of CKD in two Malawian populations. Study participants (N=5264) of 18 years of age and above were recruited and data on demographics and CKD risk factors were collected. Glomerular filtration rate was estimated (eGFR) using the CKD-EPI equation. Results: The prevalence of eGFR<60ml/min/1.73m2 was 1.4% (95% CI 1.1 – 1.7%) and eGFR<90ml/min/1.73m2 was 20.6% (95% CI 19.5 – 21.7%). The rural area had higher age-standardized prevalence of both eGFR<60ml/min/1.73m2, at 1.8% (95% CI 1.4 – 2.3) and eGFR <90 ml/min/1.73m², at 21.1% (95% CI 19.9 – 22.3), than urban location, which had a prevalence of 1.5%, (95% CI 1.0 – 2.2) and 19.4% (95% CI 18.0 – 20.8), respectively, with overlapping confidence intervals. The prevalence of CKD was lower in females than in males in both rural and urban areas. Older age (p < 0.001), a higher level of education (p = 0.03) and hypertension (p < 0.001) were associated with a higher adjusted odds ratio (aOR) of low eGFR. Diabetes was associated with a reduced aOR of eGFR<90ml/min/1.73m2 of 0.69 (95% CI 0.49–0.96; p=0.03). Of participants with eGFR<60ml/min/1.73m2, 14 (19.4%) had no history of hypertension, diabetes or HIV, while 36 (50%) had a single risk factor of being hypertensive. Conclusions: Impaired renal function is prevalent, but lower than expected, in rural and urban Malawi. Further research is needed to increase understanding of CKD incidence, survival and validation of eGFR calculations in this population.

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RISK FACTORS FOR CARDIOVASCULAR EVENTS IN RURAL NIGERIA: A CROSS SECTIONAL SURVEY AND A REVIEW OF THE CURRENT LITERATURE

Innovative Journal of Medical and Health Science ◽

10.15520/ijmhs.v9i4.2533 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 9 (4) ◽

pp. 370-375

Author(s):

Anthonia A. Ikpeme*,Nchiewe E. Ani, Edoise M. Isiwele, Andrew E. Ekpenyong,Emmanuel E. Ekanem

Keyword(s):

Risk Factors ◽

Cardiovascular Disease ◽

Rural Areas ◽

Demographic Data ◽

Cross Sectional Study ◽

Sub Saharan Africa ◽

Cross Sectional Survey ◽

Chi Square ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Cross River State

Introduction: Over 80% of cardiovascular deaths take place in low and middle incomecountries. These cardiovascular deaths are caused by modifiable risk factors. Evidenceis emerging that some of these factors maybe even more prevalent in rural areas whichare generally underserved.Aim: The aim of this study was to record risk factors for cardiovascular disease inrural communities in south southern Nigeria and review some related literature.Methods: A cross sectional study during clinical outreach activities that took placein 2016 to 2018 in several rural and few urban communities in Cross River State,Nigeria. Participating individuals gave full consent and ethical clearance obtained.Socio-demographic data, Anthropometric data and Blood sugar measurements wereobtained. Data extracted was transferred into EXCEL thereafter analysis was doneusing SPSS version 21. p values less than 0.05 were deemed statistically significant.Tests of significance included Anova, chi square and student t- tests.Results: Total population investigated over the 3 year period was 504. (2016-33.1%),(2017 -37.9%), (2018 – 28%) with a Female: Male distribution of 1:1.Most participants tended to be overweight across the years 59.7%, 59.1%, 73.7%,2016, 2017, and 2018 respectively. The prevalence of Hypertension was 10.71%. Nosignificant gender difference in the prevalence of Hypertension (6.94% males to 3.77%females, p=0.097). The prevalence of Diabetes Mellitus was 10.67%. There was nosignificant gender prevalence (6.67% males to 4.00% females, p =0.431)Conclusion: Cardiovascular disease remains relatively uncommon in Sub-SaharanAfrica, despite an increasing prevalence of risk factors, but it’s incidence is rising.Steps should be taken in Sub-Saharan Africa to prevent an epidemic. This involvesdetailed and regular screening for cardiovascular risk factors in rural communities.Key words: RISK FACTORS, Cardio vascular disease, South South Nigeria.

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Prevalence and correlates of metabolic syndrome and its components in nearly 10 million participants of northwestern China: a cross-sectional study

10.21203/rs.3.rs-47843/v1 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

yinxia su ◽

Wenli Li ◽

Yaoqin Lu ◽

Mingyue Xue ◽

Muyaseer Haireti ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Physical Activity ◽

Risk Factors ◽

Metabolic Syndrome ◽

Ethnic Groups ◽

Central Obesity ◽

The Elderly ◽

Cross Sectional Study ◽

Chinese Adults ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Low Hdl

Abstract Background The prevalence of metabolic syndrome (MetS) of comprehensive population are always lower than mono- population. However, studies on MetS and its components of it and its subgroups (different ages, genders, races, regions) based on big data and using a same diagnosis criterion are rare. Method: A total of 9,745,640 Chinese adults aged ≥ 18 years in Xinjiang,the largest autonomous region of Multi-ethnic, were enrolled in the study. MetS was defined by modified Adults Treatment Panel (ATP III) criteria.Prevalence of metabolic syndrome and its components were calculated. To further explore the correlates of MetS and its components logistic regression were used. Results The overall prevalence of MetS was 20.85% [Sex: 20.06% in female, 21.56% in man; Age: 39.22% in 60 year older followed by 40–59 year 26.32% and 18–39 years 9.56%; Ethnicity: 28.19% in Hui followed by Han (26.39%), Uyghur(18.56%), Other(18.61%), Kazak(17.98%), Mongolian (17.87%), Kyrgyz(14.44%)], living in city and town (23.03%) or north(24.78%) had higher prevalence of MetS than living in rural (19.94%) and South (17.66%). Although the prevalence of hypertension, smoking, drinking and lack of physical activity in Kyrgyz, Mongolian and Kazakh were higher than those of other ethnic groups, the risk of MetS was lower than that of other. The results also showed that although their risk of central obesity and hypertension was higher than that of Han, Hui, Uygur and other, the risk of high-TG, low HDL-C and Elevated-FPG was significantly lower than that of other ethnic groups. Among them, the Mongolian had the lowest risk of high-TG and low-HDL-C, while the Kazakh had the lowest risk of elevated-FPG. In addition, except that the risk of central obesity in males was lower than that in females, the other components of males were higher than those in females, but the risk of MetS was lower than that in females. The risk of MetS and its components in the elderly was significantly higher than that in the young, and physical activity did not show reduce the risk of MetS in the general population. Conclusion The reason why the prevalence of MetS in the comprehensive population is lower than that in most mono-population may be that some subgroups of the population have the ability to resist risk factors in terms of genetic structure such as Kyrgyz, Mongolian, Kazak, and the influence in this aspect may exceed that of lifestyle. Within each subgroup, the prevalence of MetS is still increasing. Central obesity is an important risk factor for women with MetS. Elevated-FPG and high-TG are the most important risk factors of MetS in Han, Hui. Climate and lifestyle are the main causes of MetS in northern Xinjiang and city and town residents.

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Relationship between abdominal obesity and other cardiovascular risk factors: cross sectional study of patients with symptomatic carotid disease

Srpski arhiv za celokupno lekarstvo ◽

10.2298/sarh1308460m ◽

2013 ◽

Vol 141 (7-8) ◽

pp. 460-465 ◽

Cited By ~ 3

Author(s):

Milos Maksimovic ◽

Hristina Vlajinac ◽

Djordje Radak ◽

Jelena Marinkovic ◽

Jadranka Maksimovic ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Risk Factors ◽

Metabolic Syndrome ◽

Cardiovascular Risk ◽

Cardiovascular Risk Factors ◽

Abdominal Obesity ◽

Carotid Atherosclerosis ◽

Cross Sectional Study ◽

Carotid Disease ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Symptomatic Carotid

Introduction. Obesity, particularly visceral obesity, is considered one of major risk factors for cardiovascular events. Objectives. The aim of the present study was to investigate relationship between abdominal obesity and other cardiovascular risk factors. Methods. The cross-sectional study involved 657 consecutive patients with verified carotid atherosclerosis. Carotid atherosclerosis was estimated by high resolution B-mode ultrasonography. Abdominal obesity was defined as waist circumference >102 cm in men and >88 cm in women. Results. Abdominal obesity was present in 324 (49.3%) participants. Multivariate analyses showed that abdominal obesity was significantly positively associated with female sex, increased Baecke ?s Work Index of physical activity at work, years of school completed <12, metabolic syndrome, increased triglycerides, hyperglycemia and high serum uric acid. Smoking, alcohol consumption, physical inactivity, hypertension, increased total cholesterol, increased HDL and LDL cholesterols, increased high sensitive C-reactive protein, increased fibrinogen, anti-lipid therapy and anti-diabetic therapy were not significantly related to abdominal obesity. Conclusion. Abdominal obesity among patients with symptomatic carotid disease is significantly related to other cardiovascular risk factors, especially metabolic syndrome, metabolic syndrome components and high level of serum uric acid.

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Psychosocial job conditions and biomarkers of cardiovascular disease: A cross-sectional study in the Swedish CArdioPulmonary bioImage Study (SCAPIS)

Scandinavian Journal of Public Health ◽

10.1177/14034948211064097 ◽

2022 ◽

pp. 140349482110640

Author(s):

Mia Söderberg ◽

Helena Eriksson ◽

Kjell Torén ◽

Göran Bergström ◽

Eva Andersson ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Metabolic Syndrome ◽

Ldl Cholesterol ◽

High Strain ◽

Density Lipoprotein ◽

Hdl Cholesterol ◽

Cross Sectional Study ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Diastolic Hypertension ◽

Low Hdl ◽

Job Conditions

Aims: The aim of this study was to investigate associations between psychosocial work exposure and the presence of biological and imaging biomarkers of cardiovascular disease. Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted in a sub-cohort of the Swedish CArdioPulmonary bioImage Study (SCAPIS). Psychosocial exposure was evaluated with the job demand–control model, and analysed according to the standard categorization: high strain, active, passive and low strain (reference). Biomarkers (blood pressure, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, coronary artery calcification (CAC) and metabolic syndrome) were measured, or derived through measurements, from clinical examinations. Gender-specific prevalence ratios (PRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated with regression models and adjusted for age, education, smoking, physical activity, general life stress and body mass index (BMI). Results: The analyses included 3882 participants (52.5% women). High strain (high demands–low control) was linked to increased PR for low HDL cholesterol in women, adjusted for all covariates (PR 1.76; 95% CI 1.25–2.48). High strain was also related to moderately increased PR for metabolic syndrome in men, after adjustments for all covariates except BMI (PR 1.25; 95% CI 1.02–1.52). In addition, passive work (low demands–low control) was associated with diastolic hypertension in women (fully adjusted: PR 1.29; 95% CI 1.05–1.59). All relationships between psychosocial factors and LDL cholesterol or CAC (both genders), or hypertension (men), were non-significant. Conclusions: Poor psychosocial job conditions was associated with the presence of low HDL cholesterol and diastolic hypertension in women, and metabolic syndrome in men. These findings contribute to the knowledge of potential pathways between stressful work and coronary heart disease.

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Metabolic syndrome in middle-aged and older women: A cross-sectional study

Women s Health ◽

10.1177/17455065211070673 ◽

2022 ◽

Vol 18 ◽

pp. 174550652110706

Author(s):

Mayle Andrade Moreira ◽

Saionara Maria Aires da Câmara ◽

Sabrina Gabrielle Gomes Fernandes ◽

Ingrid Guerra Azevedo ◽

Álvaro Campos Cavalcanti Maciel

Keyword(s):

Metabolic Syndrome ◽

Older Women ◽

Abdominal Obesity ◽

Menopausal Status ◽

Age Groups ◽

Density Lipoprotein ◽

Cross Sectional Study ◽

Age At Menarche ◽

Middle Aged ◽

Cross Sectional

Objective: This study aims to compare the prevalence of metabolic syndrome between different age groups of middle-aged and older women and to assess whether these differences are independent of potential covariates. Methods: Study conducted with 510 women divided into three age groups: 45–54, 55–64 and 65–74 years. Socioeconomic, reproductive and lifestyle variables were self-reported. We defined metabolic syndrome using the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III criteria (abdominal obesity, diabetes, reduced high-density lipoprotein, elevated triglycerides, and hypertension). Logistic regression assessed the association between age groups, and metabolic syndrome was adjusted for covariates (socioeconomic variables, age at menarche and at first childbirth, parity, menopausal status, physical activity variables and smoking). Results: Women aged 55–64 years presented higher prevalence of all metabolic syndrome criteria than the other groups, except for abdominal obesity, which was higher in the oldest group. In the fully adjusted analysis, the 55–64 years age group continues to exhibit significantly higher odds of presenting metabolic syndrome when compared to the youngest group (45–54 years) (OR = 2.257; 95% CI = 1.20:4.24). There was no statistical difference in the odds of presenting metabolic syndrome when comparing the oldest and the youngest groups (OR = 1.500; 95% CI = 0.85:2.65). Conclusion: The higher prevalence of metabolic syndrome among those aged 55–64 years may indicate that middle-aged women become unhealthy earlier in the life course and that many of them may die prematurely. This result highlights the importance of screening metabolic syndrome earlier in the midlife and the need for public health policies aimed at reducing adverse effects in later years.

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