scholarly journals Role of Fyn-mediated NMDA receptor function in prediabetic neuropathy in mice

2016 ◽  
Vol 116 (2) ◽  
pp. 448-455 ◽  
Author(s):  
Meng Suo ◽  
Ping Wang ◽  
Mengyuan Zhang
Keyword(s):  
Spinal Cord ◽  
Diabetic Neuropathy ◽  
High Fat Diet ◽  
Normal Diet ◽  
Tactile Allodynia ◽  
Nr2b Subunit ◽  
Wild Type ◽  
High Fat ◽  
Altered Expression

Diabetic neuropathy is a common complication of diabetes. This study evaluated the role of Fyn kinase and N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) in the spinal cord in diabetic neuropathy using an animal model of high-fat diet-induced prediabetes. We found that prediabetic wild-type mice exhibited tactile allodynia and thermal hypoalgesia after a 16-wk high-fat diet, relative to normal diet-fed wild-type mice. Furthermore, prediabetic wild-type mice exhibited increased tactile allodynia and thermal hypoalgesia at 24 wk relative to 16 wk. Such phenomena were correlated with increased expression and activation of NR2B subunit of NMDARs, as well as Fyn-NR2B interaction in the spinal cord. Fyn−/− mice developed prediabetes after 16-wk high-fat diet treatment and exhibited thermal hypoalgesia, without showing tactile allodynia or altered expression and activation of NR2B subunit, relative to normal diet-fed Fyn−/− mice. Finally, intrathecal administrations of Ro 25-6981 (selective NR2B subunit-containing NMDAR antagonist) dose-dependently alleviated tactile allodynia, but not thermal hypoalgesia, at 16 and 24 wk in prediabetic wild-type mice. Our results suggested that Fyn-mediated NR2B signaling plays a critical role in regulation of prediabetic neuropathy and that the increased expression/function of NR2B subunit-containing NMDARs may contribute to the progression of neuropathy in type 2 diabetes.

Role of sigma 1 receptor in high fat diet-induced peripheral neuropathy

2017 ◽  
Vol 398 (10) ◽  
pp. 1141-1149 ◽  
Author(s):  
Tieying Song ◽  
Jianhui Zhao ◽  
Xiaojing Ma ◽  
Zaiwang Zhang ◽  
Bo Jiang ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Spinal Cord ◽  
Peripheral Neuropathy ◽  
High Fat Diet ◽  
Tactile Allodynia ◽  
Wild Type ◽  
High Fat ◽  
Sigma 1 Receptor ◽  
Sigma 1 ◽  
Nmdar Subunits

Abstract The neurobiological mechanisms of obesity-induced peripheral neuropathy are poorly understood. We evaluated the role of Sigma-1 receptor (Sig-1R) and NMDA receptor (NMDARs) in the spinal cord in peripheral neuropathy using an animal model of high fat diet-induced diabetes. We examined the expression of Sig-1R and NMDAR subunits GluN2A and GluN2B along with postsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD-95) in the spinal cord after 24-week HFD treatment in both wild-type and Sig-1R−/− mice. Finally, we examined the effects of repeated intrathecal administrations of selective Sig-1R antagonists BD1047 in HFD-fed wild-type mice on peripheral neuropathy. Wild-type mice developed tactile allodynia and thermal hypoalgesia after 24-week HFD treatment. HFD-induced peripheral neuropathy correlated with increased expression of GluN2A and GluN2B subunits of NMDARs, PDS-95, and Sig-1R, as well as increased Sig-1R-NMDAR interaction in the spinal cord. In contrast, Sig-1R−/− mice did not develop thermal hypoalgesia or tactile allodynia after 24-week HFD treatment, and the levels of GluN2A, GluN2B, and PSD-95 were not altered in the spinal cord of HFD-fed Sig-1R−/− mice. Finally, repeated intrathecal administrations of selective Sig-1R antagonists BD1047 in HFD-fed wild-type mice attenuated peripheral neuropathy. Our results suggest that obesity-associated peripheral neuropathy may involve Sig-1R-mediated enhancement of NMDAR expression in the spinal cord.

scholarly journals Novel regulation of renal gluconeogenesis by Atp6ap2 in response to high fat diet via PGC1-α/AKT-1 pathway

2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Safia Akhtar ◽  
Silas A. Culver ◽  
Helmy M. Siragy
Keyword(s):  
Protein Expression ◽  
High Fat Diet ◽  
Normal Diet ◽  
Receptor Expression ◽  
Wild Type ◽  
High Fat ◽  
Renal Gluconeogenesis ◽  
Mrna And Protein Expression ◽  
Polymerase Chain ◽  
Renal Expression

AbstractRecent studies suggested that renal gluconeogenesis is substantially stimulated in the kidney in presence of obesity. However, the mechanisms responsible for such stimulation are not well understood. Recently, our laboratory demonstrated that mice fed high fat diet (HFD) exhibited increase in renal Atp6ap2 [also known as (Pro)renin receptor] expression. We hypothesized that HFD upregulates renal gluconeogenesis via Atp6ap2-PGC-1α and AKT pathway. Using real-time polymerase chain reaction, western blot analysis and immunostaining, we evaluated renal expression of the Atp6ap2 and renal gluconeogenic enzymes, PEPCK and G6Pase, in wild type and inducible nephron specific Atp6ap2 knockout mice fed normal diet (ND, 12 kcal% fat) or a high-fat diet (HFD, 45 kcal% fat) for 8 weeks. Compared with ND, HFD mice had significantly higher body weight (23%) (P < 0.05), renal mRNA and protein expression of Atp6ap2 (39 and 35%), PEPCK (44 and 125%) and G6Pase (39 and 44%) respectively. In addition, compared to ND, HFD mice had increased renal protein expression of PGC-1α by 32% (P < 0.05) and downregulated AKT by 33% (P < 0.05) respectively in renal cortex. Atp6ap2-KO abrogated these changes in the mice fed HFD. In conclusion, we identified novel regulation of renal gluconeogenesis by Atp6ap2 in response to high fat diet via PGC1-α/AKT-1 pathway.

scholarly journals Androgen Receptor-Dependent and Independent Atheroprotection by Testosterone in Male Mice

Endocrinology ◽  
2010 ◽  
Vol 151 (11) ◽  
pp. 5428-5437 ◽  
Author(s):  
Johan Bourghardt ◽  
Anna S. K. Wilhelmson ◽  
Camilla Alexanderson ◽  
Karel De Gendt ◽  
Guido Verhoeven ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Androgen Receptor ◽  
Apolipoprotein E ◽  
High Fat Diet ◽  
Atherosclerotic Lesion ◽  
Male Mice ◽  
Wild Type ◽  
High Fat ◽  
Lesion Area ◽  
Major Pathway

The atheroprotective effect of testosterone is thought to require aromatization of testosterone to estradiol, but no study has adequately addressed the role of the androgen receptor (AR), the major pathway for the physiological effects of testosterone. We used AR knockout (ARKO) mice on apolipoprotein E-deficient background to study the role of the AR in testosterone atheroprotection in male mice. Because ARKO mice are testosterone deficient, we sham operated or orchiectomized (Orx) the mice before puberty, and Orx mice were supplemented with placebo or a physiological testosterone dose. From 8 to 16 wk of age, the mice consumed a high-fat diet. In the aortic root, ARKO mice showed increased atherosclerotic lesion area (+80%, P &lt; 0.05). Compared with placebo, testosterone reduced lesion area both in Orx wild-type (WT) mice (by 50%, P &lt; 0.001) and ARKO mice (by 24%, P &lt; 0.05). However, lesion area was larger in testosterone-supplemented ARKO compared with testosterone-supplemented WT mice (+57%, P &lt; 0.05). In WT mice, testosterone reduced the presence of a necrotic core in the plaque (80% among placebo-treated vs. 12% among testosterone-treated mice; P &lt; 0.05), whereas there was no significant effect in ARKO mice (P = 0.20). In conclusion, ARKO mice on apolipoprotein E-deficient background display accelerated atherosclerosis. Testosterone treatment reduced atherosclerosis in both WT and ARKO mice. However, the effect on lesion area and complexity was more pronounced in WT than in ARKO mice, and lesion area was larger in ARKO mice even after testosterone supplementation. These results are consistent with an AR-dependent as well as an AR-independent component of testosterone atheroprotection in male mice.

Abstract 657: A New Translational Model of Hypercholesterolemia and Atherosclerosis: Effect of Statins on LDLR KO Miniature Swine

2014 ◽  
Vol 34 (suppl_1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Dale E Mais ◽  
Thomas Vihtelic ◽  
Chidozie Amuzie ◽  
Steven Denham ◽  
John R Swart ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
High Fat Diet ◽  
Clinical Chemistry ◽  
Small Animal ◽  
Normal Diet ◽  
Large Animal Model ◽  
Control Group ◽  
Large Animal ◽  
Wild Type ◽  
High Fat ◽  
Miniature Swine

Small animal models of atherosclerosis are commonly used in drug studies; however, the results often fail to translate into the clinic. A large animal model that more accurately reflects the human disease is needed. We recently developed a transgenic Yucatan pig model in which the LDL receptor (LDLR) gene is knocked out. Five groups of Yucatan pigs (N=4 per group), either wild type (LDLR+/+) or heterozygote (LDLR+/-) were fed a normal diet or a high fat diet for a six month period. One of the heterozygote/high fat diet groups in addition received a daily dose of a statin (atorvastatin) at 3 mg/kg. Every two weeks during the study a variety of clinical chemistry parameters were measured. At study termination, select arteries were collected, stained for lipid deposits and quantitated. In addition, sections of these arteries were prepared for immunohistochemistry to detect selected markers of macrophage infiltration into the atherosclerotic plaques. As expected, pigs fed a high fat diet gained significantly more weight at six months whether they were wild type or LDLR+/-. Atorvastatin appeared to attenuate this weight gain. There were significant increases in total cholesterol, HDL and LDL in pigs fed the high fat diet compared to their corresponding control group. The group receiving the atorvastatin had reduced values of these parameters compared to controls showing that a statin had a beneficial effect on lipid levels even in a high fat diet scenario. VLDL levels were not affected but there were triglyceride changes across the groups. Liver function was unchanged based on total bilirubin and AST while ALT measurements were altered in some of the groups. Immunohistochemistry and histomorphometry was performed on some arteries. Atorvastatin-induced amelioration of hypercholesterolemia in this model underscores its translational utility.

scholarly journals Free Fatty Acid Receptor 4 (GPR120) Stimulates Bone Formation and Suppresses Bone Resorption in the Presence of Elevated n-3 Fatty Acid Levels

Endocrinology ◽  
2016 ◽  
Vol 157 (7) ◽  
pp. 2621-2635 ◽  
Author(s):  
Seong Hee Ahn ◽  
Sook-Young Park ◽  
Ji-Eun Baek ◽  
Su-Youn Lee ◽  
Wook-Young Baek ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Fatty Acid ◽  
Free Fatty Acid ◽  
Bone Resorption ◽  
Bone Loss ◽  
Bone Formation ◽  
High Fat Diet ◽  
Wild Type ◽  
High Fat ◽  
Free Fatty Acid Receptor

Free fatty acid receptor 4 (FFA4) has been reported to be a receptor for n-3 fatty acids (FAs). Although n-3 FAs are beneficial for bone health, a role of FFA4 in bone metabolism has been rarely investigated. We noted that FFA4 was more abundantly expressed in both mature osteoclasts and osteoblasts than their respective precursors and that it was activated by docosahexaenoic acid. FFA4 knockout (Ffar4−/−) and wild-type mice exhibited similar bone masses when fed a normal diet. Because fat-1 transgenic (fat-1Tg+) mice endogenously converting n-6 to n-3 FAs contain high n-3 FA levels, we crossed Ffar4−/− and fat-1Tg+ mice over two generations to generate four genotypes of mice littermates: Ffar4+/+;fat-1Tg−, Ffar4+/+;fat-1Tg+, Ffar4−/−;fat-1Tg−, and Ffar4−/−;fat-1Tg+. Female and male littermates were included in ovariectomy- and high-fat diet-induced bone loss models, respectively. Female fat-1Tg+ mice decreased bone loss after ovariectomy both by promoting osteoblastic bone formation and inhibiting osteoclastic bone resorption than their wild-type littermates, only when they had the Ffar4+/+ background, but not the Ffar4−/− background. In a high-fat diet-fed model, male fat-1Tg+ mice had higher bone mass resulting from stimulated bone formation and reduced bone resorption than their wild-type littermates, only when they had the Ffar4+/+ background, but not the Ffar4−/− background. In vitro studies supported the role of FFA4 as n-3 FA receptor in bone metabolism. In conclusion, FFA4 is a dual-acting factor that increases osteoblastic bone formation and decreases osteoclastic bone resorption, suggesting that it may be an ideal target for modulating metabolic bone diseases.

scholarly journals CD44 contributes to hyaluronan-mediated insulin resistance in skeletal muscle of high-fat-fed C57BL/6 mice

2019 ◽  
Vol 317 (6) ◽  
pp. E973-E983 ◽  
Author(s):  
Annie Hasib ◽  
Chandani K. Hennayake ◽  
Deanna P. Bracy ◽  
Aimée R. Bugler-Lamb ◽  
Louise Lantier ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Insulin Resistance ◽  
Skeletal Muscle ◽  
High Fat Diet ◽  
Critical Role ◽  
Chow Diet ◽  
Wild Type ◽  
High Fat ◽  
Insulin Resistant ◽  
Beneficial Effects

Extracellular matrix hyaluronan is increased in skeletal muscle of high-fat-fed insulin-resistant mice, and reduction of hyaluronan by PEGPH20 hyaluronidase ameliorates diet-induced insulin resistance (IR). CD44, the main hyaluronan receptor, is positively correlated with type 2 diabetes. This study determines the role of CD44 in skeletal muscle IR. Global CD44-deficient ( cd44−/−) mice and wild-type littermates ( cd44+/+) were fed a chow diet or 60% high-fat diet for 16 wk. High-fat-fed cd44−/− mice were also treated with PEGPH20 to evaluate its CD44-dependent action. Insulin sensitivity was measured by hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp (ICv). High-fat feeding increased muscle CD44 protein expression. In the absence of differences in body weight and composition, despite lower clamp insulin during ICv, the cd44−/− mice had sustained glucose infusion rate (GIR) regardless of diet. High-fat diet-induced muscle IR as evidenced by decreased muscle glucose uptake (Rg) was exhibited in cd44+/+ mice but absent in cd44−/− mice. Moreover, gastrocnemius Rg remained unchanged between genotypes on chow diet but was increased in high-fat-fed cd44−/− compared with cd44+/+ when normalized to clamp insulin concentrations. Ameliorated muscle IR in high-fat-fed cd44−/− mice was associated with increased vascularization. In contrast to previously observed increases in wild-type mice, PEGPH20 treatment in high-fat-fed cd44−/− mice did not change GIR or muscle Rg during ICv, suggesting a CD44-dependent action. In conclusion, genetic CD44 deletion improves muscle IR, and the beneficial effects of PEGPH20 are CD44-dependent. These results suggest a critical role of CD44 in promoting hyaluronan-mediated muscle IR, therefore representing a potential therapeutic target for diabetes.

Essential role of ER-α-dependent NO production in resveratrol-mediated inhibition of restenosis

2010 ◽  
Vol 299 (5) ◽  
pp. H1451-H1458 ◽  
Author(s):  
Alok R. Khandelwal ◽  
Valeria Y. Hebert ◽  
Tammy R. Dugas
Keyword(s):  
Smooth Muscle ◽  
Carotid Artery ◽  
Vascular Smooth Muscle ◽  
Smooth Muscle Cell ◽  
High Fat Diet ◽  
No Production ◽  
Wild Type ◽  
High Fat ◽  
Mediated Effects

Resveratrol (Resv), a red wine polyphenol, is known to exhibit vascular protective effects and reduce vascular smooth muscle cell mitogenesis. Vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation is a critical factor in the pathogenesis of restenosis, the renarrowing of vessels that often occurs after angioplasty and/or stent implantation. Although Resv has been shown to be an estrogen receptor (ER) modulator, the role of the ER in Resv-mediated protection against restenosis has not yet been elucidated in vivo. Therefore, with the use of a mouse carotid artery injury model, our objective was to determine the role of ER in modulating Resv-mediated effects on neointimal hyperplasia. Female wild-type and ER-α−/− mice were administered a high-fat diet ± Resv for 2 wk. A carotid artery endothelial denudation procedure was conducted, and the mice were administered a high-fat diet ± Resv for an additional 2 wk. Resv-treated wild-type mice exhibited a dramatic decrease in restenosis, with an increased arterial nitric oxide (NO) synthase (NOS) activity and NO production. However, in the ER-α−/− mice, Resv failed to afford protection and failed to increase NO production, apparently because of a decreased availability of the NOS cofactor tetrahydrobiopterin. To verify the role of NO in Resv-mediated effects, mice were coadministered Resv plus a nonselective NOS inhibitor, NG-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester (l-NAME). Cotreatment with l-NAME significantly attenuated the antirestenotic properties of Resv. These data thus suggest that Resv inhibits vascular proliferative responses after injury, predominately through an ER-α-dependent increase in NO production.

Abstract P312: The Essential Role Of Prak In Preserving Cardiac Function And Insulin Resistance In High Fat Diet-induced Diabetes

2021 ◽  
Vol 129 (Suppl_1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Yu T Zhao ◽  
Jianfeng Du ◽  
Thomas J Zhao ◽  
Hao Wang ◽  
Marshall Kadin ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Insulin Resistance ◽  
Cardiac Function ◽  
Western Blot ◽  
Knockout Mice ◽  
High Fat Diet ◽  
Metabolic Disorders ◽  
Tolerance Test ◽  
Wild Type ◽  
High Fat

Background: p38 regulated/activated protein kinase (PRAK) plays a crucial role in modulating cell death and survival. However, the role of PRAK in mediating cardiac dysfunction and metabolic disorders remains unclear. We examined the effects of deletion of PRAK on modulating cardiac function and insulin resistance in mice exposed to a high fat diet (HFD). Methods: Wild type and PRAK -/- mice at 8 weeks old were exposed to either chow food or HFD for a consecutive 16 weeks. Glucose tolerance test and insulin tolerance test were employed to assess insulin resistance. Echocardiography was employed to assess myocardial function. Western blot was used to determine the molecular signaling involved in phosphorylation of IRS-1, AMPKα, ERK-44/42, and irisin. Real time-PCR was used to assess the hypertrophic genes of the myocardium. Histological analysis was employed to assess the hypertrophic response, interstitial myocardial fibrosis, and apoptosis in the heart. Results: HFD induced metabolic stress is indicated by glucose intolerance and insulin intolerance. PRAK knockout aggravated insulin resistance, as indicated by glucose intolerance and insulin intolerance testing as compared to wild type littermates. As compared to wild type, hyperglycemia and hypercholesterolemia were manifested in PRAK-knockout mice following high fat diet intervention. High fat diet intervention displayed a decline in fractional shortening (FS) and ejection fraction (EF). However, deletion of PRAK exacerbated the decline in EF and FS as compared to wild type mice following HFD treatment. In addition, PRAK knockout mice enhanced the expression of myocardial hypertrophic genes including ANP, BNP, and βMHC in HFD treatment, which was also associated with an increase in cardiomyocyte size and interstitial fibrosis. Western blot indicated that deletion of PRAK induces decreases in phosphorylation of IRS-1, AMPKα, and ERK44/42 as compared to wild type controls. Conclusion: Our finding indicates that deletion of PRAK promoted myocardial dysfunction, cardiac remodeling, and metabolic disorders in response to HFD.

scholarly journals MON-642 Genetic Knockout of Intestinal Hexokinase Domain-Containing Protein 1 Affects Whole-Body Glycemic Control and Triglyceride Metabolism

2020 ◽  
Vol 4 (Supplement_1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Joseph Louis Zapater ◽  
Wasim Khan ◽  
Brian T Layden
Keyword(s):  
Glycemic Control ◽  
Olive Oil ◽  
High Fat Diet ◽  
Normal Diet ◽  
Whole Body ◽  
Lipid Homeostasis ◽  
Glucose Load ◽  
Wild Type ◽  
High Fat ◽  
Glucose And Lipid Homeostasis

Abstract Hexokinase domain-containing protein 1 (HKDC1) is a recently discovered putative fifth hexokinase that is widely expressed in a variety of human and mouse tissues. Previous work indicate that HKDC1 is important for whole-body glucose homeostasis and utilization in pregnancy and aging, and suggest roles for HKDC1 in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease development and progression of hepatocellular carcinoma. Prior work in the lab further showed that global heterozygous-deleted HKDC1 mice exhibit blunted uptake of triglycerides following an olive oil bolus compared to wild-type mice, suggesting a role for intestinal HKDC1 expression in intestinal lipid metabolism (unpublished results). To specifically study the significance of intestinal HKDC1 on whole-body glucose and lipid homeostasis, we utilized Cre-mediated recombination of HKDC1 in which Cre was expressed under the control of the villin gene promoter, creating a mouse model in which HKDC1 expression is specifically deleted in the intestinal epithelium. Quantitative RT-PCR data confirmed the knockout of HKDC1 within the mouse intestine in young and aged mice, while HKDC1 expression in other tissues was comparable to wild-type mice. Next, intestinal HKDC1 knockout mice and their wild-type littermate controls were either maintained on a normal diet or were switched to a high fat diet at 6 weeks of age to simulate the state of impaired glucose tolerance, and the effects of intestinal HKDC1 on glucose and lipid homeostasis were analyzed between 28-34 weeks of age. Mice fed a normal diet did not exhibit any differences in serum glucose or triglyceride during oral/intraperitoneal glucose tolerance tests or oral olive oil bolus, respectively, regardless of intestinal HKDC1 status. Interestingly, mice lacking intestinal HKDC1 that were on a high fat diet demonstrated improved overall glycemic control compared to wild-type mice after the administration of an oral glucose load, all while there were no changes in insulin levels, gluconeogenesis or insulin tolerance related to HKDC1 status. Additionally, introduction of an intraperitoneal glucose load to mice fed a high fat diet did not alter glucose control in the presence or absence of intestinal HKDC1. However, high fat diet-fed mice lacking intestinal HKDC1 did not have a significant increase in serum triglyceride following an oral olive oil bolus, while their stool fat and triglyceride content were comparable to wild-type. Collectively, these data indicate that intestinal HKDC1 has important roles in glucose and triglyceride metabolism within the intestinal epithelium, and further suggest a role in whole-body glucose homeostasis and in the development of insulin resistance and diabetes.

IL-1R and MyD88 signalling in CD4+ T cells promote Th17 immunity and atherosclerosis

2017 ◽  
Vol 114 (1) ◽  
pp. 180-187 ◽  
Author(s):  
Daniel Engelbertsen ◽  
Sara Rattik ◽  
Maria Wigren ◽  
Jenifer Vallejo ◽  
Goran Marinkovic ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
T Cells ◽  
High Fat Diet ◽  
Cd4 T Cells ◽  
Wild Type ◽  
T Helper ◽  
High Fat ◽  
Lesion Development ◽  
Ifn Γ

Abstract Aims The role of CD4+ T cells in atherosclerosis has been shown to be dependent on cytokine cues that regulate lineage commitment into mature T helper sub-sets. In this study, we tested the roles of IL-1R1 and MyD88 signalling in CD4+ T cells in atherosclerosis. Methods and results We transferred apoe-/-myd88+/+ or apoe-/-myd88-/- CD4+ T cells to T- and B-cell-deficient rag1-/-apoe-/- mice fed high fat diet. Mice given apoe-/-myd88-/- CD4+ T cells exhibited reduced atherosclerosis compared with mice given apoe-/-myd88+/+ CD4+ T cells. CD4+ T cells from apoe-/-myd88-/- produced less IL-17 but similar levels of IFN-γ. Treatment of human CD4+ T cells with a MyD88 inhibitor inhibited IL-17 secretion in vitro. Transfer of il1r1-/- CD4+ T cells recapitulated the phenotype seen by transfer of myd88-/- CD4+ T cells with reduced lesion development and a reduction in Th17 and IL-17 production compared with wild type CD4+ T cell recipients. Relative collagen content of lesions was reduced in mice receiving il1r1-/- CD4+ T cells. Conclusion We demonstrate that both IL1R and MyD88 signalling in CD4+ T cells promote Th17 immunity, plaque growth and may regulate plaque collagen levels.

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