Evaluation of physical, anatomical, and biometric characteristics of Citrus sinensis trees in longitudinal and transverse axes of stem

Three healthy Citrus sinensis (orange) trees in Babol, Iran, were randomly selected and cut. Two discs of 5 cm thickness were prepared along the tree (breast height and crown). In the transverse direction, the test specimens were cut 2 × 2 cm to 3 cm from the pith to the bark sequentially and examined. The biometric and physical properties were measured, and microscopic sections of wood near the bark were studied using light microscopy according to the International Association of Wood Anatomists’ (IAWA) List. Anatomical examination of the C. sinensis wood showed that the species was a diffuse porous hardwood, with indistinct growth rings, simple perforation plates, alternate intervessel pits, and banded parenchyma. The basic density and oven-dry density increased from the pith towards the tree bark and from the bottom of the tree towards the crown. There was a significant difference in both the transverse and longitudinal directions of the C. sinensis tree in terms of fiber length, fiber lumen diameter, fiber diameter, and cell wall thickness. The mean fiber length, fiber diameter, fiber lumen diameter, and cell wall thickness were 0.76 mm, 23.64 µm, 9.23 µm, and 14.41 µm, respectively.

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Effects of altitude on density and biometric properties of hornbeam wood (Carpinus betulus)

Forest Systems ◽

10.5424/fs/2019282-14490 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 28 (2) ◽

pp. e011 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Majid Kiaei ◽

Valiullah Moosavi ◽

Seyed Eshagh Ebadi

Keyword(s):

Cell Wall ◽

Wall Thickness ◽

Fiber Length ◽

Fiber Diameter ◽

Tree Height ◽

Wood Properties ◽

Cell Wall Thickness ◽

Dry Density ◽

Carpinus Betulus ◽

Fiber Dimensions

Aim of the study: This study aimed to investigate the effect of altitude difference on the wood dry density, fiber dimensions, and morphological properties of hornbeam wood (Carpinus betulus L.).Area of study: The study area was located in the province of Mazandaran, north of Iran.Material and method: 18 mature trees were randomly selected and harvested at six altitude levels (300, 500, 700, 900, 1100, and 1300 m) in the north of Iran. The clear test samples‎ were prepared‎ at diameter at breast height (DBH) to measure the wood dry density, fiber length, fiber diameter, cell wall thickness, Runkel coefficients, flexibility coefficients, and slenderness coefficients. Further ‎analyses included the relationships between the wood properties and site conditions (temperature, ‎precipitation, crown canopy, ‎and understory herb layer) as well as tree’s main dimensions ‎(tree height and the DBH).Main results: The results indicated significant effects of altitude variations on the studied ‎properties. The pattern variations of wood properties were very regular at different levels of height. The average fiber length and fiber diameter decreased while the wood dry density and cell wall thickness increased with increasing the altitude levels. The average values of wood dry density, fiber length, fiber diameter, cell wall thickness, slenderness coefficients, flexibility coefficients, and Runkel coefficients of hornbeam wood were 698 kg/m3, 1.42mm, 25.58 µm, 5.72µm, 55.55, 54.04%, and 0.93, respectively, in the above six altitudes. Pearson matrix correlation showed that there were significant relationships between temperature, crown canopy, tree height and DBH ‎with the studied wood properties (except the slenderness coefficients)‎.Research highlights: The hornbeams grown at altitudes above 900-1300 m were not suitable for pulp and ‎paper production‎ due to relatively higher Runkel coefficients, the lower flexibility coefficients, as well as smaller fiber length than other altitude levels.Additional Keywords: Carpinus betulus; altitude variation; density; fiber dimensions; morphological properties.Abbreviations used: WDD (wood dry density); FL (fiber length); FD (fiber diameter), CWT (cell wall thickness); FC (flexibility coefficient); RC (Runkel coefficients); SC (slenderness coefficient).

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Properties of Gliricidia Wood (Gliricidia sepium) lntercropped with Cocoa (Theobroma cocoa) in Malaysia

Scientific Research Journal ◽

10.24191/srj.v14i1.5418 ◽

2014 ◽

Vol 11 (1) ◽

pp. 51

Author(s):

Mohd Helmy Ibrahim ◽

Mohd Nazip Suratman ◽

Razali Abd Kader

Keyword(s):

Cell Wall ◽

Specific Gravity ◽

Moisture Content ◽

Wall Thickness ◽

Age Groups ◽

Gliricidia Sepium ◽

Cell Wall Thickness ◽

Tree Age ◽

Lumen Diameter ◽

Significant Difference

Trees planted from agroforestry practices can become valuable resources in meeting the wood requirements of many nations. Gliricidia sepium is an exotic species introduced to the agricultural sector in Malaysia mainly for providing shade for cocoa and coffee plantations. This study investigates its wood physical properties (specific gravity and moisture content) and fibre morphology (length, lumen diameter and cell wall thickness) of G. sepium at three intervals according to age groups ( three, five and seven years of ages). Specific gravity (0.72) was significantly higher at seven years ofage as compared to five (0.41) and three (0.35) years age group with a mean of 0.43 (p<0.05). Mean moisture content was 58.3% with no significant difference existing between the tree age groups. Fibre diameter (22.4 mm) was significantly lower (p<0.05) for the trees which were three years of age when compared to five and seven years age groups (26.6 mm and 24. 7 mm), respectively. Means of fibre length, lumen diameter and cell wall thickness were 0.83 mm, 18.3 mm, and 6.2 mm, respectively, with no significant differences detected between trees in all age groups. Further calculation on the coefficient of suppleness and runkel ratio suggest that wood from G.sepium may have the potential for insulation board manufacturing and paper making. However, future studies should experiment the utilisation of this species for these products to determine its full potential.

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Properties of Gliricidia Wood (Gliricidia sepium) lntercropped with Cocoa (Theobroma cocoa) in Malaysia

Scientific Research Journal ◽

10.24191/srj.v11i1.9400 ◽

2014 ◽

Vol 11 (1) ◽

pp. 51

Author(s):

Mohd Helmy Ibrahim ◽

Mohd Nazip Suratman ◽

Razali Abd Kader

Keyword(s):

Cell Wall ◽

Specific Gravity ◽

Moisture Content ◽

Wall Thickness ◽

Age Groups ◽

Cell Wall Thickness ◽

Tree Age ◽

Lumen Diameter ◽

Full Potential ◽

Significant Difference

Trees planted from agroforestry practices can become valuable resources in meeting the wood requirements of many nations. Gliricidia septum is an exotic species introduced to the agricultural sector in Malaysia mainly for providing shade for cocoa and coffee plantations. This study investigates its wood physical properties (specific gravity and moisture content) and fibre morphology (length, lumen diameter and cell wall thickness) of G.sepium at three intervals according to age groups (three, five and seven years of ages). Specific gravity (0.72) was significantly higher at seven years of age as compared to five (0.4 I) and three (0.35) years age group with a mean of 0.43 (p<0.05). Mean moisture content was 58.3% with no significant difference existing between the tree age groups. Fibre diameter (22.4 mm) was significantly lower (p<0.05) for the trees which were three years of age when compared to five and seven years age groups (26.6 mm and 24. 7 mm), respectively. Means of fibre length, lumen diameter and cell wall thickness were 0.83 mm, 18.3 mm, and 6.2 mm, respectively,, with no significant differences detected between trees in all age groups. Further calculation on the coefficient of suppleness and runkel ratio suggest that wood from G.sepium may have the potential for insulation board manufacturing and paper making. However, future studies should experiment the utilisation of this species for these products to determine its full potential.

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ANATOMY AND DRYING OF WOOD OF FOUR SPECIES FROM AN AGROFORESTRY SYSTEM

FLORESTA ◽

10.5380/rf.v51i4.74061 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 51 (4) ◽

pp. 910

Author(s):

Elder Eloy ◽

Rômulo Trevisan ◽

Tainara Dos Santos Piecha ◽

Magda Rosa Fontoura ◽

Henrique Webber Dalla Costa ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Cell Wall ◽

Wall Thickness ◽

Fiber Diameter ◽

Pearson Correlation ◽

Agroforestry System ◽

Wood Products ◽

Cell Wall Thickness ◽

Lumen Diameter ◽

Study Region ◽

Schizolobium Parahyba

Drying is an important process in the generation of wood products, as it increases the quality of the final products; however, it is influenced by various anatomical characteristics. The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of anatomy on the drying of wood of Parapiptadenia rigida (Benth.) Brenan, Peltophorum dubium (Spreng.) Taub., Eucalyptus grandis W. Hill × Eucalyptus urophylla S.T. Blake (hybrid), and Schizolobium parahyba (Vell.) Blake trees from an agroforestry system. Three trees aged 9 years were sampled for each species. The trees were removed from the study region when their diameter at breast height (DBH) was 1.30 m from the ground. Blocks were made with dimensions of 5.0 × 5.0 × 15.0 cm for the evaluation of oven drying and 1.5 × 1.5 × 2.0 cm for anatomical features. S. parahyba has the highest value of fiber diameter (35.1 µm) and lumen diameter (27.6 µm), whereas P. dubium had the highest value of cell wall thickness (6.8 µm). The average equilibrium moisture content was 10.98% after 40 days of drying. The anatomy of the wood influenced the drying of the four species intensity, which was related to humidity during all periods. The anatomical parameters that most influenced drying were fiber diameter (Pearson correlation coefficient: 0.77), lumen diameter (0.76), and fiber cell wall thickness (0.73); the higher the values, the greater was the drying intensity.

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A comparative fiber morphological analysis of major agricultural residues (used or investigated) as feedstock in the pulp and paper industry

BioResources ◽

10.15376/biores.16.4.7935-7952 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 16 (4) ◽

pp. 7935-7952

Author(s):

Dimitrios Tsalagkas ◽

Zoltán Börcsök ◽

Zoltán Pásztory ◽

Vladimir Gryc ◽

Levente Csóka ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Cell Wall ◽

Rice Straw ◽

Sugarcane Bagasse ◽

Wall Thickness ◽

Fiber Length ◽

Slenderness Ratio ◽

Agricultural Residues ◽

Lumen Diameter ◽

Coconut Husk ◽

Flexibility Coefficient

The suitabilities of major agricultural residues were assessed as papermaking feedstocks. All the examined agricultural residues were assumed as potential candidates for substituting hardwood fibers in mixed pulp blends from a fiber morphological perspective. Wheat, barley, rice, rapeseed, maize, sunflower, sugarcane bagasse, coconut husk, and two genotypes of miscanthus grass underwent identical maceration. The fiber length, fiber width, cell wall thickness, and lumen diameter were measured to calculate the slenderness ratio, flexibility coefficient, and Runkel ratio. The average fiber length ranged from 0.50 mm ± 0.32 mm (MG-S-02-V) to 1.15 mm mm ± 0.58 mm (sugarcane bagasse). The fiber width ranged from 10.77 μm ± 3.28 μm (rice straw) to 22.99 mm ± 5.20 mm (sunflower stalk). The lumen diameter ranged from 4.52 μm ± 2.52 μm (rice straw) to 13.23 μm ± 4.87 μm (sunflower stalk). The cell wall thickness ranged from 3.02 μm ± 0.95 μm (rice straw) to 4.80 μm ± 1.48 μm (sunflower stalk). The slenderness ratio, flexibility coefficient, and Runkel ratio values ranged between 28.08 to 58.11, 37.97 to 60.8, and 0.62 to 1.68, respectively. Wheat, maize, rapeseed, sugarcane bagasse, and coconut husk were found to be appropriate residue sources for papermaking feedstocks.

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Fiber Morphology of Different Bamboo Species and Age

Materials Science Forum ◽

10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.1025.312 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 1025 ◽

pp. 312-318

Author(s):

Nur Musfirah Suhaimi ◽

Nurul Husna Mohd Hassan ◽

Rushdan Ibrahim ◽

Latifah Jasmani

Keyword(s):

Cell Wall ◽

Fiber Length ◽

Fiber Diameter ◽

Raw Materials ◽

Paper Industry ◽

Pulp And Paper Industry ◽

Pulp And Paper ◽

Lumen Diameter ◽

Bamboo Species ◽

Fiber Morphology

Fiber morphology of 3 species of bamboo namely Bambusa vulgaris, Gigantochloa levis, and Gigantochloa scortechinii at age of 1, 3, and 5 years, was evaluated. It shows that different species of bamboo have different properties in terms of their fiber morphology that consist of fiber length, fiber diameter, and lumen diameter. Fiber diameter, fiber length, and cell wall thickness increased with the increasing of the bamboo age but the lumen diameter decreased when the bamboo gets older. G. levis at age 1 to 3 and G. scortechinii at age 1 have high potential to be the raw materials for the pulp and paper industry.

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Effects of Fertilization on Wood Formation in Naturally Regenerated Juvenile Silver Birch in a Norway Spruce Stand in South Sweden

Forests ◽

10.3390/f12040415 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 12 (4) ◽

pp. 415

Author(s):

Josefin A. Nilsson ◽

Grace Jones ◽

Charlotta Håkansson ◽

Åsa Blom ◽

Johan Bergh

Keyword(s):

Cell Wall ◽

Wood Density ◽

Wall Thickness ◽

Basic Density ◽

Ring Width ◽

Cell Wall Thickness ◽

Silver Birch ◽

Fertilizer Treatment ◽

Age Difference ◽

Stem Wood

This study investigates wood density and anatomy of juvenile silver birch stems in Sweden, grown in mixed conifer stands. Our aim is to investigate if fertilization provides increased growth, as well as an eventual reduction in stem wood density. Measurements of basic density, ring width, cell wall thickness, and vessels are analyzed for 20 birch trees. Bark to pith radial sections are analyzed using a light microscope and the freeware ImageJ to compare treatments and ages. The results show that trees with fertilizer treatment have wider growth rings and thinner cell wall thickness compared to unfertilized trees. The fertilized trees also have a lower cambium age at the same height and the same diameter, and a slightly lower stem mean density (420 kg m−3) than the unfertilized stems (460 kg m−3). Fertilizer is a significant determinant of density and cell wall thickness in nonlinear models. The fertilized trees have increased growth and reached a fixed diameter earlier. The age difference between the trees likely explains some of the differences in cell wall thickness. This study supports the use of fertilizer as a silvicultural option for increasing the growth rate of silver birch for a relatively small reduction of wood density.

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Radial Variation of Anatomical Characteristics in Paraserianthes Falcataria Planted in Indonesia

IAWA Journal ◽

10.1163/22941932-90000223 ◽

2009 ◽

Vol 30 (3) ◽

pp. 343-352 ◽

Cited By ~ 19

Author(s):

F. Ishiguri ◽

T. Hiraiwa ◽

K. Iizuka ◽

S. Yokota ◽

D. Priadi ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Cell Wall ◽

Wall Thickness ◽

Wood Fiber ◽

Basic Density ◽

Cell Wall Thickness ◽

Radial Variation ◽

Cell Diameter ◽

Wood Fibers ◽

Paraserianthes Falcataria ◽

Anatomical Characteristics

Radial variation in anatomical characteristics of five 13-year-old Paraserianthes falcataria (L.) Nielsen (syn. Albizia falcataria (L.) Fosberg), an important commercial tree species in Indonesia, were investigated in order to obtain basic information regarding breeding for wood quality. Both cell wall thickness in wood fibers and vessel percentage showed an almost constant value up to 10 cm from the pith and then increased toward the bark. In contrast, wood fiber percentage decreased from 10 cm toward the bark. The cell wall percentage was lower towards the pith and higher towards the bark. In the five sample trees, significant differences were found in the cell diameter of wood fibers, wood fiber percentage, axial parenchyma percentage, and cell wall percentage. Basic density was affected by the cell wall thickness of wood fibers, but not the vessel percentage and fiber percentage.

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Wood and bark fiber characteristics of Acacia melanoxylon and comparison to Eucalyptus globules

CERNE ◽

10.1590/s0104-77602011000100007 ◽

2011 ◽

Vol 17 (1) ◽

pp. 61-68 ◽

Cited By ~ 6

Author(s):

Fatima Tavares ◽

Teresa Quilhó ◽

Helena Pereira

Keyword(s):

Cell Wall ◽

Wall Thickness ◽

Eucalyptus Globulus ◽

Fiber Length ◽

Tree Height ◽

Specific Pattern ◽

Cell Wall Thickness ◽

Wood Fibers ◽

Acacia Melanoxylon ◽

Fiber Wall

Wood and bark fibers of Acacia melanoxylon were characterized and compared to Eucalyptus globulus which is a major quality source of pulp fibers. In 20 trees from four sites, fiber length and wall thickness were measured at 5, 35 and 65% of total tree height and at 10, 30, 50, 70 and 90% of the distance from pith. Maceration were prepared in a 1:1 glacial acetic acid:hydrogen peroxide solution. Wood and bark fiber length varied between 0.90 - 0.96 mm and 1.33 - 1.59 mm respectively. The cell wall thickness varied between 3.45 - 3.89 µm in wood and 5.01 - 5.40 µm in bark. Wood and bark fiber length decreased from the bottom to the top of the tree and cell wall thickness had no specific pattern for axial variation. Fiber length and wall thickness increased from the pith to the bark, but the wall thickness increased slightly with some fluctuations. In Acacia melanoxylon significant site differences were found in relation to bark fiber length and to wood wall thickness. The fibers of Acacia melanoxylon were similar to those of Eucalyptus globulus but the wood fibers were thinner and the bark fibers thicker. The radial variation was similar in both species. In wood of Eucalyptus globulus, fiber wall thickness increases from the base to the middle of tree height and decreases to the top; in the bark decreases from the base to the top. In Eucalyptus globulus fibers bark are higher in the top.

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Effect of Microstructures on the Shear Strength of Larix kaempferi

Forests ◽

10.3390/f12070830 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 12 (7) ◽

pp. 830

Author(s):

Mingyue Li ◽

Shuangbao Zhang ◽

Yurong Wang ◽

Haiqing Ren

Keyword(s):

Cell Wall ◽

Shear Strength ◽

Failure Mode ◽

Wall Thickness ◽

Shear Failure ◽

Microfibril Angle ◽

Cell Wall Thickness ◽

Larix Kaempferi ◽

Significant Difference ◽

Shear Performance

Shear strength is important for the application of Larix kaempferi (Lamb) Carr. The structural difference between earlywood and latewood of Larix kaempferi affects its mechanical properties, especially shear strength. The microstructures of earlywood and latewood in Larix kaempferi, however, are different. In this study, we investigated the shear strength and shear failure mode in the RL direction of 40 Larix kaempferi specimens. The results demonstrated that the initial crack appears in any location of a growth ring, whereas shear failure is concentrated in earlywood, as well as the junction between earlywood and latewood. The destruction of earlywood is the tear destruction, whereas when the destruction happened in the junction of earlywood and latewood, one to three earlywood cells usually adhered to latewood. At the cell wall level, the shear failure of earlywood was mostly observed in the direction of the microfibril angle (MFA). When the crack occurs in latewood, the destruction of latewood also occurs in the intercellular layer and preserves the complete morphology of tracheids. When destruction occurs in the wood ray, the ray cells detach intact from the tracheids. The failure mode is determined by the microstructure of earlywood and latewood. Our research suggests that the density, cell wall thickness, and MFA have significant differences between earlywood and latewood. The earlywood was found to have an MFA of 25.4°, a cell wall thickness of 6.36 µm, and a density of 0.39 g/cm3. The MFA, cell wall thickness, and density of latewood density were 17.60°, 12.37 µm, and 0.78 g/cm3, respectively. However, there was no significant difference found in the crystallinity between the earlywood (43.97%) and latewood (42.79%). The correlation between the microstructures and shear strength showed that earlywood with a thin cell wall, large MFA, and low density had poor shear performance, while the latewood with a thicker tracheid, smaller MFA, and higher density had better shear performance. Therefore, when shear failure occurred, it occurred in earlywood. We thus deduced that the MFA, cell wall thickness, and density of earlywood synergically affect the shear strength in the RL direction of L. kaempferi.

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