COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ADEQUACY OF PROTEIN FROM HUMAN MILK AND COW'S MILK IN PROMOTING NITROGEN RETENTION BY NORMAL FULL-TERM INFANTS

PEDIATRICS ◽  
1960 ◽  
Vol 26 (1) ◽  
pp. 51-61
Author(s):  
Samuel J. Fomon
Keyword(s):  
Human Milk ◽  
Nitrogen Retention ◽  
Full Term ◽  
Cow’S Milk ◽  
Metabolic Balance ◽  
Term Infants ◽  
Cow's Milk ◽  
Normal Limits ◽  
The Mean ◽  
Mean Concentration

Eight normal full-term infants have been studied during ad libitum ingestion of a formula (Formula 1257) containing 60 calories/100 ml and providing 7% of the calories as protein from cow's milk, 50% from a mixture of vegetable oils and 43% from lactose. The mean concentration of nitrogen in this formula was slightly less than the mean concentration in human milk in a previous study.4 Growth of the infants is interpreted as within normal limits. The mean concentration of urea nitrogen in the serum was 6.0 mg/100 ml. Between 1 and 6 months of age the mean concentration of total protein in the serum was 5.7 gm/100 ml. Both the mean volume of intake and the mean concentration of nitrogen in the feeding were slightly less than those of the infants fed pasteurized human milk. Consequently, in 44 of 60 metabolic balance studies with infants receiving Formula 1257, intakes of nitrogen were less than the mean intakes of infants of similar age receiving pasteurized human milk (Fig. 3). Similarly, retentions of nitrogen in 37 of the 60 metabolic balance studies fell below the regression calculated for infants fed pasteurized human milk (Fig. 4). The retentions of nitrogen were generally in the range of those of infants fed pasteurized human milk and it is concluded that the two feedings have similar abilities to promote retention of nitrogen by infants.

METABOLIC STUDIES OF NORMAL FULL-TERM INFANTS FED A PREPARED FORMULA PROVIDING INTERMEDIATE AMOUNTS OF PROTEIN

PEDIATRICS ◽  
1958 ◽  
Vol 22 (6) ◽  
pp. 1134-1147 ◽  
Author(s):  
Samuel J. Fomon ◽  
Charles D. May
Keyword(s):  
Human Milk ◽  
Nitrogen Retention ◽  
Growth Curves ◽  
Full Term ◽  
Cow’S Milk ◽  
Milk Formula ◽  
Term Infants ◽  
Cow's Milk ◽  
The Mean ◽  
Ad Libitum

Twelve normal full-term infants have been studied during ad libitum feeding of a prepared formula of cow's milk (Formula S) which provided an intake of protein intermediate between that of infants consuming human milk and that of infants receiving commonly employed formulas that supply two-thirds of the calories from cow's milk and one-third from additional carbohydrate. Growth of the infants proceeded along normal developmental channels but, as in the case of infants fed human milk, the growth curves generally fell at or below the 50th percentiles of the Iowa Growth Charts. The studies were designed to compare nitrogen retention of groups of infants growing normally. Proper evaluation of growth of infants fed different foods would require larger numbers of infants in each group. The mean concentrations of total protein and urea nitrogen in the serum were 5.3 gm/100 ml and 8.9 mg/100 ml, respectively. The mean volume of intake was 198 mg/kg/day (providing 133 cal/kg/day) in metabolic balance studies performed during the first 1½ months of life and 142 ml/kg/day (providing 95 cal/kg/day) during similar studies performed between 4½ and 6 months of age. The mean intakes of nitrogen during the corresponding periods were 534 mg (= 3.3 gm protein) and 398 mg (= 2.5 gm protein)/kg/day, and the mean retentions of nitrogen were 211 and 102 mg/kg/day, respectively. The retentions of nitrogen by infants ingesting Formula S ad libitum were as large as, or greater than, those of infants ingesting human milk ad libitum.

NITROGEN BALANCE STUDIES WITH NORMAL FULL-TERM INFANTS RECEIVING HIGH INTAKES OF PROTEIN

PEDIATRICS ◽  
1961 ◽  
Vol 28 (3) ◽  
pp. 347-361
Author(s):  
Samuel J. Fomon
Keyword(s):  
Nitrogen Balance ◽  
Close Relation ◽  
Full Term ◽  
Cow Milk ◽  
Dietary Intakes ◽  
Metabolic Balance ◽  
Term Infants ◽  
Urea Nitrogen ◽  
Normal Limits ◽  
Mean Concentration

Nitrogen balance studies were performed with 12 normal full-term infants, 8 boys and 4 girls, during the first 4½ to 6 months of life. Three high-protein feedings were employed, supplying approximately 20% of the calories as protein from cow milk. Growth of the infants is interpreted as within normal limits. The concentration of total protein in the serum was not greater than that recorded in previous studies employing lesser dietary intakes of protein. The mean concentration of urea nitrogen in the serum was 21.8 mg/100 ml between 1 and 6 months of life and somewhat greater during the first month of life. A close relation between mean intake of protein in various studies and mean concentration of urea nitrogen was demonstrated. Intakes of protein were generally between 4.5 and 6 gm/kg/day, and retentions of nitrogen were, with few exceptions, between 200 and 300 mg/kg/day in the first 2 months of life and between 130 and 200 mg/kg/day from 4 to 6 months of age. The major sources of error in calculation of body content of protein on the basis of metabolic balance studies are mentioned. Metabolic balance studies are believed unsuitable for prediction of body composition.

EQUIVALENCE OF PASTEURIZED AND FRESH HUMAN MILK IN PROMOTING NITROGEN RETENTION BY NORMAL FULL-TERM INFANTS

PEDIATRICS ◽  
1958 ◽  
Vol 22 (5) ◽  
pp. 935-944
Author(s):  
Samuel J. Fomon ◽  
Lora N. Thomas ◽  
Charles D. May
Keyword(s):  
Human Milk ◽  
Nitrogen Balance ◽  
Nitrogen Retention ◽  
Full Term ◽  
Metabolic Balance ◽  
Experimental Conditions ◽  
Term Infants ◽  
Group I ◽  
Group Ii ◽  
Breast Fed

Twenty-nine nitrogen balance studies were performed with 10 normal full-term infants fed fresh human milk either from the breast (eight nitrogen balance studies with four infants) or by bottle. Six of the infants (Group I) were solely breast-fed before and between the metabolic balance periods. Four infants (Group II) were fed pasteurized human milk before and between the metabolic balance periods during which fresh human milk was fed. The mean intake of nitrogen by the infants fed fresh human milk was less than that of previously studied infants who received pasteurized human milk. Reasons for the smaller mean intakes of nitrogen by infants of Group I may have included voluntary decrease in volume of intake on the part of infants because of time unfamiliar environment or because milk was fed from a bottle. An additional factor may have been decreased supply of milk by the mother (and possibly decreased concentration of nitrogen in the milk) because of altered conditions for nursing and multiple trips to the Metabolism Ward. Decreased concentrations of nitrogen in the milk fed to infants of Group II may have resulted from longer duration of lactation of the women providing the milk and greater volume of milk produced. The relation of retention of nitrogen to intake of nitrogen was the same for infants fed fresh human milk as had been found for those fed pasteurized human milk. Four of the infants (Group II) studied while receiving fresh human milk by bottle were also studied while receiving pasteurized human milk. Intakes and retentions of nitrogen were similar with both feedings. The literature concerning nitrogen balance studies of full-term infants was reviewed. Mean intakes and retentions of nitrogen are similar to those of the present study but considerably greater variability was encountered, as might be expected in view of the lack of uniformity of experimental conditions among the different studies. Processing (pasteurization and freezing) of human milk apparently does not alter its nutritional properties in such a way as to affect nitrogen balance of infants. It is concluded that the retentions of nitrogen of the infants fed processed human milk in the previous study may be considered representative of the retentions of nitrogen by normal breast-fed infants.

METABOLIC STUDIES OF NORMAL FULL-TERM INFANTS FED PASTEURIZED HUMAN MILK

PEDIATRICS ◽  
1958 ◽  
Vol 22 (1) ◽  
pp. 101-115
Author(s):  
Samuel J. Fomon ◽  
Charles D. May
Keyword(s):  
Human Milk ◽  
Nitrogen Balance ◽  
Total Protein ◽  
Caloric Intake ◽  
Regression Equation ◽  
Full Term ◽  
Term Infants ◽  
Period Data ◽  
The Mean ◽  
Mean Concentration

Six normal full-term infants were fed human milk during all of the first 6 months of life and three normal full-term infants were fed human milk during portions of that period. Data are presented concerning growth in length and weight. The mean concentration of total protein in the serum was 5.2 gm/100 ml and that of urea nitrogen was 6.3 mg/100 ml. Data from 74 nitrogen balance studies of the nine infants are presented. The mean volume of intake of pasteurized human milk during the balance periods performed in the first 1½ months of life was 218 ml/kg/day, decreasing to 140 ml/kg/ day between 4½ and 6 months of age. Assuming a mean concentration of 67 cal/100 ml of the pooled human milk, the mean caloric intake of the infants during the first 1½ months of life was 147 cal/kg/day, decreasing to a mean intake of 94 cal/kg/day between 4½ and 6 months of age. The mean intake of protein during the first 1½ months of life was 2.4 gm/kg/day, decreasing to 1.5 gm/kg/day between 4½ and 6 months of age. The mean retention of nitrogen at 1 month of age (calculated from the regression equation) was 180 mg/kg/day, gradually decreasing to 47 mg/kg/day by 6 months of age. These retentions are considerably less than those reported for infants receiving the higher intakes of protein (generally more than 3.5 gm/kg/day) provided by many formulas of cow's milk. The mean gain in weight for each gram of nitrogen retained by the infants was 42.1 gm.

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF HUMAN MILK AND A SOYA BEAN FORMULA IN PROMOTING GROWTH AND NITROGEN RETENTION BY INFANTS

PEDIATRICS ◽  
1959 ◽  
Vol 24 (4) ◽  
pp. 577-584 ◽  
Author(s):  
Samuel J. Fomon
Keyword(s):  
Comparative Study ◽  
Human Milk ◽  
Nitrogen Retention ◽  
Soya Bean ◽  
Metabolic Balance ◽  
Term Infants ◽  
The World ◽  
The Mean ◽  
Ad Libitum ◽  
Ad Libitum Feeding

Four infants, 4 to 6½ months of age, were studied for periods of 38 to 73 days while receiving ad libitum feeding of a formula in which the protein was derived from soya bean. No other source of calories was provided. The content of protein in the formula was 1.14 gm/100 ml (6.8% of the calories supplied by protein) and the mean intake of protein by the infants was 1.7 gm/kg/ day. The amounts of methionine (mean intake, 38 mg/kg/day) and tryptophan (mean intake, 14 mg/kg/day) supplied by the formula were slightly less than currently accepted minimal requirements for infants. The rate of gain in weight of the infants was normal and retentions of nitrogen (15 metabolic balance studies) were at least as great as those of normal full-term infants of similar ages fed human milk. This finding may be of value in consideration of protein allowances for children in technically underdeveloped areas of the world in which soya beans, but not animal protein, are available.

SERUM MAGNESIUM LEVELS IN THE NEWBORN

PEDIATRICS ◽  
1964 ◽  
Vol 33 (6) ◽  
pp. 969-974
Author(s):  
Constantine S. Anast
Keyword(s):  
Human Milk ◽  
Serum Magnesium ◽  
Mean Value ◽  
Cow’S Milk ◽  
Older Children ◽  
Mean Values ◽  
Cow's Milk ◽  
The Mean ◽  
The Difference ◽  
Breast Fed

Two hundred and thirty-eight determinations of serum magnesium levels during the first 4 days of life were carried out on 78 infants. No statistically significant differences were found when these values were compared to those determined in 111 older children and adults. Differences in mean values between any of the first 5 days were not statistically significant nor were any significant differences found when the values of each day were compared with the mean value of older children and adults or the mean value of the cord bloods. The mean values on days 3, 4, and 5 were higher in breast-fed infants than in infants fed evaporated milk. Higher values in breast-fed infants and lower values in evaporated-milk-fed infants on days 3 and 4 when compared to day 1 in the same infant were found in a significant number of cases. The possibility that the observed differences in these two groups of infants may be related to the difference in phosphate to magnesium ratio in cow's milk as compared to human milk is discussed. Further investigation of this problem is needed before definite conclusions can be drawn.

CONCENTRATIONS OF CALCIUM AND INORGANIC PHOSPHORUS IN SERUM OF NORMAL INFANTS RECEIVING VARIOUS FEEDINGS

PEDIATRICS ◽  
1963 ◽  
Vol 31 (3) ◽  
pp. 495-498
Author(s):  
George M. Owen ◽  
Philip Garry ◽  
Samuel J. Fomon
Keyword(s):  
Phosphorus Content ◽  
Inorganic Phosphorus ◽  
Mean Value ◽  
Full Term ◽  
Term Infants ◽  
The Mean ◽  
Mean Concentration

Sera of normal full-term infants, 2 weeks to 5 months of age, were analyzed for concentrations of calcium and inorganic phosphorus. Concentrations of calcium were not found to be significantly influenced by age, sex or type of feeding, the mean value being 9.6 mg/100 ml. Concentrations of inorganic phosphorus in sera of groups of infants receiving a variety of feedings were not well correlated with phosphorus content of the feedings. The mean concentration of inorganic phosphorus in sera of infants 2 weeks to 2 months of age was 7.0 mg/100 ml, approximately two-thirds of the values falling between 6.0 and 8.0 mg/100 ml. The mean concentration of inorganic phosphorus in sera of infants 2 to 5 months of age was 6.5 mg/100 ml, approximately two-thirds of the values falling between 5.8 and 7.4 mg/100 ml. Mean concentration of inorganic phosphorus in sera of boys was significantly greater than in sera of girls, particularly during the first two months of life. The importance of this observation is uncertain.

scholarly journals Longitudinal manganese and copper balances in young infants and preterm infants fed on breast-milk and adapted cow's milkformulas

1989 ◽  
Vol 61 (3) ◽  
pp. 559-572 ◽  
Author(s):  
Klaus Dörner ◽  
Stefan Dziadzka ◽  
Andreas Höhn ◽  
Erika Sievers ◽  
Hans-Dieter Oldigs ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Breast Milk ◽  
Trace Element ◽  
Preterm Infants ◽  
Full Term ◽  
Cow’S Milk ◽  
Milk Formula ◽  
Term Infants ◽  
The Mean ◽  
Mn Concentration ◽  
Breast Fed

1. Mn and Cu intake and retention in twenty full-term infants and six preterm infants were studied on the basis of 72 h balances. The age of the infants was 2–16 weeks and the gestational age of the preterm infants (triplets) 34 and 36 weeks. Three nutrition schemes were pursued: breast-fed, formula-fed with unsupplemented adapted formula and formula-fed with trace element supplementation.2. The mean Mn concentration of all breast-milk samples (n 2339) was 6·2 μg/1. The two formulas had similar Mn concentrations (77 and 99 μg/1) but had different Fe, Cu (121 and 619 μg/1), Zn and I contents. The mean Cu concentration in mother's milk was 833 μg/1.3. The following mean daily Mn intakes and retentions (μg/kg) respectively were measured: breast-fed fullterm 1·06 (sd 0·43) and 0·43 (sd 0·65), formula-fed full-term 14·2 (sd 3·1) and 2·8 (sd 4·8), formula-fed preterm 15·0 (sd 2·2) and 0·06 (sd 5·87). The results for Cu were 114·5 (sd 22·3) and 88·0 (sd 46·5) μg/kg in breast-fed, 19–8 (sd 4·2) and 4·6 (-11·5–9·6) in the unsupplemented formula-fed and 106·4 (sd 18·9) and 55·5 (sd 20·3) in the supplemented formula full-term infant group. No significant influence of the trace element contents of the formulas on the relative retention of Mn or Cu was found.4. Young preterm infants, and to some degree young full-term infants, often had negative Mn balances caused by a high faccal excretion. The formulas with a Mn concentration below 100 μg/l gave a sufficient supply of Mn. Preterm infants fed on the unsupplemented formula had a marginal Cu supply and their first balances were negative (-3·8 (sd 1·8) μg/kg).5. In accordance with the estimated safe and adequate daily dietary intakes (recommended dietary allowances), formula-fed infants receive much more Mn than breast-fed infants and their absolute retention is higher.6. Cu from breast-milk had a significantly better biological availability than that from cow's milk formula. If retentions similar to those in breast-fed infants are intended, we conclude, therefore, that cow's milk formula should be fortified with Cu up to a level of at least 600 μg/l.

Serum total and free tryptophan levels in term infants fed cow's milk formula or human milk

1989 ◽  
Vol 148 (8) ◽  
pp. 781-783 ◽  
Author(s):  
V. Zanardo ◽  
M. D'Aquino ◽  
L. Stocchero ◽  
M. Biasiolo ◽  
G. Allegri
Keyword(s):  
Human Milk ◽  
Cow’S Milk ◽  
Milk Formula ◽  
Term Infants ◽  
Cow's Milk ◽  
Free Tryptophan

ACIDIFICATION OF THE URINE BY INFANTS FED HUMAN MILK AND WHOLE COW'S MILK

PEDIATRICS ◽  
1959 ◽  
Vol 23 (1) ◽  
pp. 113-120
Author(s):  
Samuel J. Fomon ◽  
Dorris M. Harris ◽  
Robert L. Jensen
Keyword(s):  
Human Milk ◽  
Ammonium Chloride ◽  
Titratable Acidity ◽  
Cow’S Milk ◽  
Age Group ◽  
Prolonged Administration ◽  
Cow's Milk ◽  
Group I ◽  
The Mean ◽  
Group Ii

Acidification of the urine was studied with two groups of infants, each group consisting of four infants between 2 and 6 months of age: Group I received fresh or pasteurized human milk and Group II received whole cow's milk on evaporated milk and water without additional carbohydrate. The mean titratable acidity of the urine of infants of Group I was 3 meq/m2/12 hr compared with 35 meq/m2/12 hr for infants of Group II. The rates of excretion of ammonia were 7 and 28 meq/m2/12 hr by infants of Group I and II, respectively. After administration of ammonium chloride (4 gm/m2/day) for 2 days, the titratable acidity increased to 6 meq/m2/12 hr in Group I and to 34 meq/m2/12 hr in Group II. The mean rates of excretion of ammonia increased to 21 and 36 meq/m2/12 hr, respectively. The greater titratable acidity of the urine of infants of Group II is attributed primanly to the greater amounts of phosphate in the urine (mean, 35 mmol/m2/12 hr excreted by infants of Group II compared with 3 mmol/m2/12 hr by infants of Group I). The greater rate of excretion of ammonia by infants of Group II is attributed jointly to the prolonged administration of a diet with relatively great residue of anions and, perhaps, to the greater availability of glutamine and other precursors of ammonia.

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