scholarly journals Factors Associated with Pregnancy Among Filipino Women Aged 15-19: Results from the 2017 Philippine National Demographic and Health Survey

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Veincent Christian Pepito ◽  
Arianna Maever L. Amit ◽  
Clinton S. Tang ◽  
Luis Miguel B. Co ◽  
Neil Andrew K. Aliazas ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Health Survey ◽  
Strong Evidence ◽  
Teenage Pregnancy ◽  
Formal Education ◽  
Roman Catholic ◽  
Demographic And Health Survey ◽  
Factors Associated ◽  
Unintended Pregnancies ◽  
Filipino Women ◽  
The Individual

Abstract Background: Teenage pregnancy is an event known to have physical, emotional, and psychosocial implications. Despite such risks, many teenage Filipino women still have unintended pregnancies. This study aims to identify factors associated with pregnancy among Filipino women aged 15-19.Methods: We used data from the individual recode of the 2017 Philippine National Demographic and Health Survey. We used logistic regression for survey data to identify determinants associated with teenage pregnancy. Results: Out of 5,120 respondents, 420 (8.56%) have ever been pregnant. After adjusting for confounding variables, we find that there is strong evidence that belonging to the richer (adjusted odds ratio (aOR): 0.51; 95% Confidence Interval (CI): 0.27, 0.97) and richest (aOR: 0.45; 95% CI: 0.22, 0.93) socio-economic strata are protective against teenage pregnancy. Accessing the internet at least once a week (aOR: 0.42; 95% CI: 0.24, 0.74) or almost every day (aOR: 0.45; 95% CI: 0.23, 0.86) are also protective against teenage pregnancy. Among the religions, being Protestant (aOR: 0.46; 95% CI: 0.22, 0.96), or a Muslim (aOR: 0.28; 95% CI: 0.14, 0.58) lower the odds of teenage pregnancy as compared to being Roman Catholic. On the other hand, there is strong evidence that just finishing primary education raises the odds of teenage pregnancy by six times (aOR: 6.25; 95% CI: 1.31, 29.89) as compared to those who did not have any formal education. A year increase in age also increases the odds of teenage pregnancy by 2.93 times (aOR: 2.93; 95% CI: 2.48, 3.46).Conclusions: These findings highlight the need to implement reproductive health education and contraceptive promotion interventions on a nationwide scale. Promoting internet access through investments in internet coverage and speed may also help in further decrease teenage pregnancy. Urgent action is needed considering the prevalence of teenage pregnancy in the country and its rapid increase due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

scholarly journals Individual and community level factors associated with anemia among children 6—59 months of age in Ethiopia: A further analysis of 2016 Ethiopia demographic and health survey

PLoS ONE ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 15 (11) ◽  
pp. e0241720
Author(s):  
Menaseb Gebrehaweria Gebremeskel ◽  
Afework Mulugeta ◽  
Abate Bekele ◽  
Lire Lemma ◽  
Muzey Gebremichael ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Health Survey ◽  
Logistic Regression Model ◽  
Demographic And Health Survey ◽  
Community Level ◽  
Multilevel Logistic Regression ◽  
Factors Associated ◽  
Dire Dawa ◽  
Poverty Status ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Multilevel Logistic Regression Model

Background Anemia is a global public health problem; but its burden is disproportionately borne among children in the African Regions. The 2016 Ethiopia Demographic and Health Survey report showed that the prevalence of anemia among children 6–59 months of age was 57%; far exceeding the national target of 25% set for 2015. Although studies have been conducted in Ethiopia, multilevel analysis has rarely been used to identify factors associated with anemia among children. Therefore, this study aimed to identify individual and community-level factors associated with anemia among children 6–59 months of age by fitting a multilevel logistic regression model. Methods The data was obtained from the 2016 Ethiopia Demographic and Health Survey, conducted from January to June 2016, and downloaded from the website http://www.DHSprogram.com. The sample was taken using two-stage stratified sampling. In stage one, 645 Enumeration Areas and in stage two 28 households per Enumeration Area were selected. A sample of 7790 children 6–59 months of age was included. Data were analyzed using STATA version 14. A multilevel logistic regression model was fitted and an adjusted odds ratio with a 95% confidence interval was obtained. Result From the individual-level factors, anemia was associated most strongly with child age, wealth index, maternal anemia and child stunting followed by child underweight, child fever and birth order whereas from the community-level, the strongest odds of anemia occurred among children from Somali, Harari, Dire Dawa and Afar region followed by Oromia and Addis Ababa. Low community-poverty is a protective factor for anemia. The odds of anemia were 0.81 (95% CI: 0.66, 0.99) times lower for children who were living in communities of lower poverty status than children who were living in communities of higher poverty status. Children from Somali and Dire Dawa had 3.38 (95% CI: 3.25, 5.07) and 2.22 (95% CI: 1.42, 3.48) times higher odds of anemia, respectively than children from the Tigray region. Conclusions This study shows that anemia among children 6–59 months of age is affected both by the individual and community level factors. It is better to strengthen the strategies of early detection and management of stunted and underweight children. At the same time, interventions should be strengthened to address maternal anemia, child fever and poverty, specifically targeting regions identified to have a high risk of anemia.

scholarly journals Factors Associated With Uptake of Iron Supplement During Pregnancy Among Women of Reproductive Age in Tanzania: an Analysis of Data From the 2015 to 2016 Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey and Malaria Indicators Survey

2021 ◽  
Vol 9 ◽  
Author(s):  
Fabiola Vincent Moshi ◽  
Walter C. Millanzi ◽  
Ipyana Mwampagatwa
Keyword(s):  
Pregnant Women ◽  
Health Survey ◽  
Formal Education ◽  
Reference Population ◽  
Demographic And Health Survey ◽  
Reproductive Age ◽  
Free Access ◽  
Iron Supplement ◽  
Factors Associated ◽  
Working Status

Background: Pregnant women are vulnerable to iron deficiency due to the fact that more iron is needed primarily to supply the growing fetus and placenta and to increase the maternal red cell mass. Little is known on the factors associated with uptake of iron supplement during pregnancy.Methods: The study used data from the 2015 to 2016 Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey and Malaria Indicators Survey. A total of 6,924 women of active reproductive age from 15 to 49 were included in the analysis. Both univariate and multiple regression analyses were used to determine factors associated with uptake of iron supplement during pregnancy.Results: Majority of the interviewed women 5,648 (81.6%) always took iron supplement during pregnancy, while a total of 1,276 (18.4%) women never took iron supplement during pregnancy. After controlling for confounders, the predictors for uptake of iron supplement during pregnancy were early antenatal booking (adjusted odds ratio, AOR = 1.603 at 95% CI = 1.362–1.887, p < 0.001); rural residence (AOR = 0.711 at 95% CI = 0.159–0.526, p = 0.007); wealth index [rich (AOR = 1.188 at 95% CI = 0.986–1.432, p = 0.07)]—poor was the reference population; level of education [primary education (AOR = 1.187 at 95% CI = 1.013–1.391, p = 0.034)]—no formal education was the reference population; parity [para 2 to 4 (AOR = 0.807 at 95% CI = 0.668–0.974, p = 0.026), para 5 and above (AOR = 0.75 at 95% CI = 0.592–0.95, p = 0.017)], para 1 was the reference population; zones [mainland rural (AOR = 0.593 at 95% CI = 0.389–0.905, p = 0.015) and Unguja Island AOR = 0.63 at 95% CI = 0.431–0.92, p = 0.017]—mainland urban was the reference population; and current working status [working (AOR = 0.807 at 95% CI = 0.687–0.949, p = 0.009)].Conclusion: The study revealed that, despite free access to iron supplement during pregnancy, there are women who fail to access the supplement at least once throughout the pregnancy. The likelihood to fail to access iron supplement during pregnancy was common among pregnant women who initiated antenatal visits late, were from poor families, had no formal education, reside in rural settings, had high parity, were from mainland rural, and were in working status. Interventional studies are recommended in order to come up with effective strategies to increase the uptake of iron supplement during pregnancy.

scholarly journals Individual and contextual factors associated with disposal of children’s stools in Papua New Guinea: evidence from the 2016–2018 demographic and health survey

2020 ◽  
Vol 20 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Abdul-Aziz Seidu ◽  
Ebenezer Agbaglo ◽  
Bright Opoku Ahinkorah ◽  
Louis Kobina Dadzie ◽  
Ishmael Bukari ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Papua New Guinea ◽  
Health Survey ◽  
Contextual Factors ◽  
Statistical Significance ◽  
New Guinea ◽  
Demographic And Health Survey ◽  
Global Public Health ◽  
Logistic Regression Models ◽  
Factors Associated ◽  
The Individual

Abstract Background Proper sanitation has been one of the topmost priorities on the global public health agenda. In the past few decades, sanitation programs targeting households have often paid little attention to the disposal of children’s stools. We assessed the individual and contextual factors associated with disposal of children’s faeces in Papua New Guinea. Methods The data used for this study forms part of the 2016–2018 Papua New Guinea Demographic and Health Survey (PDHS). For this study, we focused on women with children less than five years (n = 2095). Both descriptive and inferential analyses were carried out. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize the data, using frequency counts and percentages. The inferential analysis used multilevel logistic regression models to investigate the individual and contextual factors associated with disposal of children’s stools. These models were presented as adjusted odds ratio (AORs), together with their corresponding 95% confidence intervals. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Results More than half (56%) of the women had disposed of their children’s stools unsafely. With the individual level factors, the results showed that women with children < 12 months [AOR =1.71; CI = 1.28–2.29] and women aged 20–24 [AOR =2.58; CI = 1.24–5.37], 35–39 [AOR =2.34; CI = 1.09–5.04], and 40 years and above [AOR =2.51; CI = 1.09–5.79] were more likely to practice unsafe disposal of children’s stool. The odds of unsafe disposal of faeces was also higher among women who visited the health facility for child diarrhea [AOR =1.69; CI = 1.25–2.28]. With the contextual factors, the odds of unsafe disposal of children’s stool was higher among women who lived in the Southern region [AOR =4.82; CI = 2.08–11.18], those who lived in male-headed households [AOR =1.79; CI = 1.19–2.70], and those who had unimproved toilet facilities [AOR =1.96; CI = 1.39–2.76]. On the contrary, women with unimproved source of drinking water were less likely to dispose of their children’s stool unsafely [AOR =0.54; CI = 0.35–0.83]. Conclusion Both individual and contextual factors predict unsafe disposal of children’s faeces in Papua New Guinea. It is recommended that sanitation programs should focus on behavioral change and not only on the extension of water and improved toilet facilities. Such programs should also focus on both individual and contextual factors of women.

Social and individual factors associated with condom use among single youths: an analysis of the 2018 Cameroon Demographic and Health Survey

2021 ◽  
pp. 1-27
Author(s):  
Jean-Robert Mburano Rwenge ◽  
Franklin Bouba Djourdebbe ◽  
Emmanuel Ekambi Ekambi
Keyword(s):  
Risk Factor ◽  
Condom Use ◽  
Sexual Intercourse ◽  
Health Survey ◽  
Protective Factor ◽  
Multivariate Logistic Regression Analysis ◽  
Demographic And Health Survey ◽  
Main Risk Factor ◽  
Factors Associated ◽  
Service Sectors

Abstract In Cameroon, two-fifths of the population is between the age of 15 and 24. Adolescents and youths are an important social group for the development of the country and the realization of the demographic dividend. The promotion of sexual and reproductive health will enable youth to transform their potential into development. This study aimed to identify the determinants of condom use at last sexual intercourse among single youths, highlight gender differences in the factors associated with condom use and identify the characteristics of youths who were less likely to use condoms. Data were taken from the 2018 Cameroon Demographic and Health Survey. The study sample comprised 1464 single females and 989 single males age 15–24. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to test the study hypotheses. Overall, 51% of the female and 66% of the male youths reported using condoms at last sexual intercourse. For both sexes, the protective factor was not having children. Among the females, belonging to the Bamileke or Mbo ethnic groups and delaying first sexual intercourse were also protective, while working in the modern or service sectors was the main risk factor. Among male youths, residing in households whose heads had a higher educational level was protective and household poverty was the main risk factor. These findings support Cameroon’s multi-sectoral approach to HIV/AIDS prevention among youths, and emphasize the importance of involving parents, teachers and youths in prevention strategies.

scholarly journals "I was tricked": understanding reasons for unintended pregnancy among sexually active adolescent girls

2021 ◽  
Vol 18 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Anthony Idowu Ajayi ◽  
Sally Atieno Odunga ◽  
Clement Oduor ◽  
Ramatou Ouedraogo ◽  
Boniface Ayanbekongshie Ushie ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Unintended Pregnancy ◽  
Adolescent Girls ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Teenage Pregnancy ◽  
Formal Education ◽  
School Attendance ◽  
Clear Understanding ◽  
Sexually Active ◽  
Unintended Pregnancies ◽  
Study Setting

Abstract Background While the Kenya government is mobilizing high-level strategies to end adolescent pregnancy by 2030, a clear understanding of drivers of early unintended pregnancy in the country is a necessary precursor. In this study, we determine the prevalence, associated factors, and reasons for unintended pregnancy among sexually active adolescent girls (aged 15–19 in two Kenya counties with the highest rate of teenage pregnancy. Methods We used the “In Their Hands” (ITH) program's baseline evaluation data. The study adopted a mixed-methods design with 1110 sexually active adolescent girls in the quantitative component and 19 girls who were either pregnant or nursing a child in the qualitative. We used adjusted and unadjusted logistic regression to model factors associated with unintended pregnancy among respondents. We used a thematic analysis of qualitative data to examine girls’ reasons for having unintended pregnancy. Results Overall, 42% of respondents have had an unintended pregnancy; however, higher proportions were observed among girls who were 19 years (49.4%), double orphans (53.6%), never used contraceptive (49.9%), out-of-school (53.8%), and married (55.6%). After adjusting for relevant covariates, the odds of unintended pregnancy were higher among girls who resided in rural areas (AOR 1.64, 95% CI 1.22–2.20), had primary or no formal education (AOR 1.50 95% CI 1.11–2.02), and had never used contraceptive (AOR 1.69 95% CI 1.25–2.29) compared with their counterparts. Current school attendance was associated with a 66% reduction in the probability of having an unintended pregnancy. Participants of the qualitative study stated that the desire to maintain a relationship, poor contraceptive knowledge, misinformation about contraceptive side effects, and lack of trusted mentors were the main reasons for their unintended pregnancies. Conclusion A massive burden of unintended pregnancy exists among sexually active adolescent girls in the study setting. Adolescent boys and girls need better access to sexuality education and contraceptives in the study setting to reduce early unintended pregnancy.

scholarly journals Less than one-fifth of the mothers practised exclusive breastfeeding in the emerging regions of Ethiopia: a multilevel analysis of the 2016 Ethiopian demographic and health survey

2021 ◽  
Vol 21 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Tsegaye Gebremedhin ◽  
Demiss Mulatu Geberu ◽  
Asmamaw Atnafu
Keyword(s):  
Health Survey ◽  
Exclusive Breastfeeding ◽  
Household Wealth ◽  
Community Level ◽  
Wealth Status ◽  
Individual Level ◽  
Factors Associated ◽  
Breastfeeding Practices ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Low Coverage

Abstract Background The burden of low coverage of exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) has a significant impact on the health of a newborn and also on the family and social economy in the long term. Even though the prevalence of EBF practices in Ethiopia is low, the practices in the pastoral communities, in particular, are significantly low and affected by individual and community-level factors. Besides, its adverse outcomes are mostly unrecognised. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the individual and community-level factors of low coverage of EBF practices in the emerging regions of Ethiopia. Methods In this analysis, data from 2016 Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey (EDHS) were used. A two-stage stratified sampling technique was used to identify 1406 children aged 0 to 23 months in the emerging regions of Ethiopia. A multilevel mixed-effect binary logistic regression analysis was used to determine the individual and community level factors associated with exclusive breastfeeding practices. In the final model, variables with a p-value of < 0.05 and Adjusted Odds Ratio (AOR) with 95% Confidence Interval (CI) were found to be statistically significant factors that affect exclusive breastfeeding practices. Results Overall, 17.6% (95% CI: 15.6–19.6) of the children aged 0 to 23 months have received exclusive breastfeeding. Employed mothers (AOR: 0.33, 95% CI: 0.21–0.53), richer household wealth status (AOR: 0.39, 95% CI: 0.16–0.96), mothers undecided to have more children (AOR: 2.29, 95% CI: 1.21–4.29), a child with a history of diarrhoea (AOR: 0.31, 95% CI: 0.16–0.61) were the individual-level factors, whereas Benishangul region (AOR: 2.63, 95% CI: 1.44–4.82) was the community-level factors associated with the exclusive breastfeeding practices. Conclusions Less than one-fifth of the mothers have practised exclusive breastfeeding in the emerging regions of Ethiopia. The individual-level factors such as mother’s employment status, household wealth status, desire for more children, presence of diarrhoea and community-level factors such as region have contributed to the low coverage of exclusive breastfeeding. Therefore, the federal and regional health bureaus and other implementers should emphasise to those emerging regions by creating awareness and strengthening the existing community-based health extension program to enhance exclusive breastfeeding practices.

scholarly journals Individual and contextual factors associated with barriers to accessing healthcare among women in Papua New Guinea: insights from a nationwide demographic and health survey

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Abdul-Aziz Seidu ◽  
Ebenezer Agbaglo ◽  
Louis Kobina Dadzie ◽  
Bright Opoku Ahinkorah ◽  
Edward Kwabena Ameyaw ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Papua New Guinea ◽  
Health Survey ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Contextual Factors ◽  
Statistical Significance ◽  
New Guinea ◽  
Wealth Quintile ◽  
Demographic And Health Survey ◽  
Outcome Variable ◽  
Factors Associated

Abstract Background This study sought to assess the individual and contextual factors associated with barriers to accessing healthcare among women in Papua New Guinea. Methods The study was conducted among 14 653 women aged 15–49 y using data from the 2016–2018 Papua New Guinea Demographic and Health Survey. The outcome variable was barriers to accessing healthcare. Descriptive and multilevel logistic regression analyses were conducted. Statistical significance was declared at P &lt; 0.05. Results Women aged 15–19 y were more likely to experience at least one barrier compared with those aged 40–49 y (adjusted OR [AOR]=1.48; 95% CI 1.18 to 1.86). Women with secondary/higher education (AOR=0.68; 95% CI 0.57 to 0.81), women in the richest wealth quintile (AOR=0.36; 95% CI 0.28 to 0.46) and those in the least disadvantaged socioeconomic status (AOR=0.46; 95% CI 0.33 to 0.64) had lower odds of having challenges with at least one barrier to healthcare. However, living in rural areas increased the odds of facing at least one barrier to healthcare (AOR=1.87; 95% CI 1.27 to 2.77). Conclusions This study has demonstrated that both individual and contextual factors are associated with barriers to healthcare accessibility among women in Papua New Guinea. To enhance the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals 3.1, 3.7 and 3.8, it is critical to deem these factors necessary and reinforce prevailing policies to tackle barriers to accessing healthcare among women in Papua New Guinea.

scholarly journals Determinants of inadequate complementary feeding practices among children aged 6–23 months in Ghana

2014 ◽  
Vol 18 (4) ◽  
pp. 669-678 ◽  
Author(s):  
Abukari I Issaka ◽  
Kingsley E Agho ◽  
Penelope Burns ◽  
Andrew Page ◽  
Michael J Dibley
Keyword(s):  
Risk Factors ◽  
Health Survey ◽  
Complementary Feeding ◽  
Dietary Diversity ◽  
Feeding Practices ◽  
Demographic And Health Survey ◽  
Meal Frequency ◽  
Factors Associated ◽  
Minimum Dietary Diversity ◽  
Breast Fed

AbstractObjectiveTo explore complementary feeding practices and identify potential risk factors associated with inadequate complementary feeding practices in Ghana by using the newly developed WHO infant feeding indicators and data from the nationally representative 2008 Ghana Demographic and Health Survey.DesignThe source of data for the analysis was the 2008 Ghana Demographic and Health Survey. Analysis of the factors associated with inadequate complementary feeding, using individual-, household- and community-level determinants, was done by performing multiple logistic regression modelling.SettingGhana.SubjectsChildren (n 822) aged 6–23 months.ResultsThe prevalence of the introduction of solid, semi-solid or soft foods among infants aged 6–8 months was 72·6 % (95 % CI 64·6 %, 79·3 %). The proportion of children aged 6–23 months who met the minimum meal frequency and dietary diversity for breast-fed and non-breast-fed children was 46·0 % (95 % CI 42·3 %, 49·9 %) and 51·4 % (95 % CI 47·4 %, 55·3 %) respectively and the prevalence of minimum acceptable diet for breast-fed children was 29·9 % (95 % CI 26·1 %, 34·1 %). Multivariate analysis revealed that children from the other administrative regions were less likely to meet minimum dietary diversity, meal frequency and acceptable diet than those from the Volta region. Household poverty, children whose mothers perceived their size to be smaller than average and children who were delivered at home were significantly less likely to meet the minimum dietary diversity requirement; and children whose mothers did not have any postnatal check-ups were significantly less likely to meet the requirement for minimum acceptable diet. Complementary feeding was significantly lower in infants from illiterate mothers (adjusted OR=3·55; 95 % CI 1·05, 12·02).ConclusionsThe prevalence of complementary feeding among children in Ghana is still below the WHO-recommended standard of 90 % coverage. Non-attendance of postnatal check-up by mothers, cultural beliefs and habits, household poverty, home delivery of babies and non-Christian mothers were the most important risk factors for inadequate complementary feeding practices. Therefore, nutrition educational interventions to improve complementary feeding practices should target these factors in order to achieve the fourth Millennium Development Goal.

scholarly journals A multilevel analysis of overweight and obesity among non-pregnant women of reproductive age in Malawi: evidence from the 2015–16 Malawi Demographic and Health Survey

2018 ◽  
Vol 11 (6) ◽  
pp. 496-506 ◽  
Author(s):  
Peter Austin Morton Ntenda ◽  
Jane Flora Kazambwe
Keyword(s):  
Pregnant Women ◽  
Health Survey ◽  
Media Coverage ◽  
White Collar ◽  
Overweight And Obesity ◽  
Demographic And Health Survey ◽  
Community Level ◽  
Reproductive Age ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Maternal Overweight

Abstract Background Overweight and obesity are well-known risk factors for non-communicable diseases such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, some cancers and musculoskeletal disorders. In Malawi, the proportion of women who are overweight/obese has doubled, from 10% in 1992 to 21% in 2015–16. Therefore we aimed to explore the individual- and community-level factors associated with overweight and obesity among non-pregnant women of child-bearing age. Methods Secondary analysis of the 2015–16 Malawi Demographic and Health Survey was conducted. Overweight was defined as a body mass index (BMI) of 25 to &lt;30 kg/m2, while obesity was defined as a BMI ≥30 kg/m2. Two-level multilevel multivariable logistic regression models were constructed using a logit-link function with a binomial distribution on 7326 women living in 850 different communities. Results At the individual level, the adjusted multilevel regression results showed that women 15–19 y of age as well as women from the poorest households had reduced odds of being overweight/obese. However, women with white collar jobs and women who were affiliated with the Church of Central Africa Presbyterian and the Roman Catholic church had increased odds of being overweight/obese. At the community level, women from urban areas and women who resided in communities with a low percentage of media exposure had increased odds of being overweight or obese. While women from poor communities had reduced odds of being overweight and obese, the proportion change in variance showed that 56, 77 and 78% of total variations in the odds of overweight, obese and overweight/obese across the communities were explained by both individual- and community-level factors. The median odds ratio showed that the likelihood of maternal overweight, obese and overweight/obese increased by 63, 39 and 84% when the women moved from low- to high-risk neighbourhoods. Conclusions Older women, Christian women, women with white collar jobs and women from the richest households should be targeted during policy formulation. At the community level, media coverage should be spread evenly so that health awareness messages, consequences and means of overweight and obesity prevention are getting to the targeted women. Our study revealed evidence of clustering effects of overweight and obesity at the community level, hence neighbourhood variations with respect to maternal overweight and obesity should be taken into account when designing nutritional policies.

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