scholarly journals There And Back Again: Women's Marginal Commuting Costs

2018 ◽  
Vol 3 (2) ◽  
Author(s):  
Isabel Stockton ◽  
Annette Bergemann ◽  
Stephan Brunow
Keyword(s):  
Willingness To Pay ◽  
Labour Market ◽  
Gender Gap ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Cox Model ◽  
Labour Force ◽  
Housing Cost ◽  
Minor Role ◽  
Marginal Willingness To Pay ◽  
Commuting Distance

BackgroundBetter estimates of workers' willingness to pay to reduce commutes can help evaluate transport policy as well as innovations in workplace organisation implemented by firms (such as telecommuting). These measures could facilitate the employment of workers with care responsibilities by reducing commuting cost. ObjectivesWe estimate female workers' marginal willingness to pay to reduce commuting distance in Germany in a partial-equilibrium model of job search with non-wage job attributes. We consider heterogeneity by parenthood, regional structure and part-time status of workers and are moreover able to explore the role of housing cost, childcare and intra-household interactions for subsamples of the data. Methods and DataWe use national insurance data based on a 10\% sample of the German labour force including daily information on job spells, personal and job characteristics and residential and workplace post codes between 2000 and 2013 (a customised version of the ``Integrated Employment Biographies'' provided by the Institute of Employment Research, IAB). Taking advantage of the longitudinal structure of the data, our analysis uses a stratified Cox model to take better account of unobserved individual heterogeneity than the previous literature has been able to do. We control for housing costs using additional data on rents at the county level. FindingsWe find a substantial gender gap in marginal willingness to pay for reduced commuting distance between men and women which is not explained by individual unobserved heterogeneity. When women have their first child, their willingness to pay increases further. Preliminary results suggest that heterogeneity between urban, conurbational and rural areas in Germany plays a minor role in determining women's willingness to pay. ConclusionsSubstantial gender and motherhood gaps in implicit commuting cost provide an important link between the household and labour market in understanding gender and job choice, with implications for gender-sensitive labour market policy.

scholarly journals Trend of Rural Employment and Wages in Pakistan

1992 ◽  
Vol 31 (4II) ◽  
pp. 803-815 ◽  
Author(s):  
M. Ghaffar Chaudhry ◽  
Ghulam Mustafa Chaudhry
Keyword(s):  
Labour Market ◽  
Rapid Growth ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Labour Force ◽  
Mass Movement ◽  
Developed Countries ◽  
Real Wages ◽  
Rural Employment ◽  
The Masses

Trends in rural employment and wages are important in a number of ways. For example, a steady growth of job opportunities is a precondition for productive employment of labour force under rapid growth of population. Rising real wages of the working class would be essential for incessant improvements ih the standard of living of the masses. Lack of sufficient employment opportunities in rural areas together with the consequent stagnating (even declining) wages may be a potential cause of mass movement of rural labour to urban areas and attendant formidable economy-wide problems. Similarly, aggregate growth rates of employment and wages in contrast with those in productive sectors have an important bearing on trends in income distribution and poverty. Rapid growth of population, predominance of rural sector and a general lack of studies on rural labour market conditions in less developed countries, including Pakistan, call for a study such as the present one, which explores the trends of rural employment and wages in Pakistan. The paper carries four sections. Section 1 surveys the present state of the rural labour market. Section 2 reports trends in rural employment and discusses the various factors underlying those trends. Employment situation being the basic determinant, wage trends, especially those in agriculture, are highlighted in Section 3. Section 4 summarises the findings of the study and in their light makes some policy recommendations.

scholarly journals GENDER GAP INDEX FOR EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY

2020 ◽  
Vol 4 (9) ◽  
pp. 39-48
Author(s):  
Shweta Tewari ◽  
Rajshree Chouhan ◽  
Sanjeev
Keyword(s):  
Women Workers ◽  
Labour Market ◽  
Working Conditions ◽  
Unemployment Rate ◽  
Gender Gap ◽  
Labour Force ◽  
Participation Rate ◽  
Labour Force Participation ◽  
Work Place ◽  
Labour Force Participation Rate

Women account for nearly half of the human resources of a nation and play an important role in the socio-economic development of a country. In India, in spite of focus on women empowerment, condition of women at the work place is not very encouraging. Women often face greater barriers than men in terms of securing a decent jobs, wages and conducive working conditions. Provisions relating to women’s work were introduced in 1891, with amendment of the Factories Act, 1881. After independence, number of provisions has been made in the constitutions to protect the welfare of women workers. Number of protective legislations have also been made and implemented by the government for the interest of women workers. The basic objective behind implementation of these legislation are to provide equal and a decent level of remuneration, proper child care center , maternity relief and decent working conditions to women workers. Despite these constitutional and legislative arrangements to reduce gender gap, women in India are facing discrimination at work place and suffer from harassment. The present paper critically reviewed the effectiveness of government policies and legislations framed and enacted for the welfare of women workers. It also examines the gender dimensions of the trends in various aspects of labour market viz. labour force participation rate, workforce participation rate, unemployment rate and wage rate. An attempt has been made to capture the discrimination at work by computing Gender Gap Index using major indicators of labour market. For computing the index, data for the last four decades has been used. The analysis shows that there are gaps in effective enforcement of relevant laws and implementation of women responsive policies. The gender gap index for employment opportunities and the analysis of major employment indicators showed that gender gap is increasing in many aspects. Major indicators of employment such as Labour Force participation rate, Worker population ratio, Unemployment rate and wages now have larger gender gaps than before.

Not All Time Is Money: Women’s Burden of Unpaid Work

2020 ◽  
Vol 5 (2) ◽  
pp. 95-108
Author(s):  
Aishwarya Bhuta ◽  
Mridula Muralidharan
Keyword(s):  
Labour Market ◽  
Time Use ◽  
Social Reproduction ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Labour Force ◽  
Labour Force Participation ◽  
Unpaid Work ◽  
Home Based ◽  
Force Time ◽  
Infrastructural Support

Since the 1990s, India has been witnessing a downward trend in female labour force participation (FLFP). Feminist economists have argued that the invisible labour of unpaid household work is quintessential for the social reproduction of the labour force. Time-use statistics can be useful for estimating the value of unpaid work and lead policy responses towards increasing FLFP. This study analyses the report on Time Use in India-2019 to draw insights from data on women’s disproportionate burden of unpaid domestic and caregiving services. It is argued that this has implications for their participation in the labour market. The patriarchal structure of the family pushes the onus of domestic labour on women. This confines them to home-based, poorly remunerated and informal work, or excludes them from the labour market. Interventions in the form of generating non-agricultural job opportunities in rural areas, establishing infrastructural support mechanisms in workplaces and encouraging female education and employment can not only stimulate FLFP but also help to address the crisis of jobless growth.

Enriching the Lives of Marginalised Sections: Case of MGNREGS in Composite Andhra Pradesh, India

2020 ◽  
Vol 5 (2) ◽  
pp. 184-201
Author(s):  
C. Samba Murty ◽  
M. Srinivasa Reddy
Keyword(s):  
Labour Market ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Andhra Pradesh ◽  
Labour Force ◽  
Rural Employment ◽  
Jobless Growth ◽  
Poor Households ◽  
Scheduled Castes ◽  
Employment Guarantee ◽  
Employment Guarantee Scheme

The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) initiated in 2006 is essentially a reaction to the jobless growth witnessed in the post-1991 reforms period. The Scheme seeks to improve the livelihoods of the marginalised sections in rural areas by generating wage employment. The article is an attempt to examine if the Scheme is really benefitting these sections as envisaged. Our village survey data of composite Andhra Pradesh (AP) brings to the fore the fact that the socially lowly placed scheduled castes (SCs), scheduled tribes (STs) and other backward castes (OBCs) were well represented among the beneficiaries of the Scheme, female participation in the Scheme was way beyond expectations, the Scheme was indeed the mainstay of the illiterate and the little educated that look for manual labour, and the otherwise rarely preferred elderly of the labour market found place in the Scheme and they could make significant contribution to earnings of poor households. It further throws up the finding that the Scheme was an important employment avenue to reckon with in the rural labour market and therefore, it increased the bargaining strength and the reservation wage rate of the labour force. Briefly, the Scheme contributed to inclusive growth.

scholarly journals COVID-19 Crisis and Some Contours of the Rural Labour Market in India

2021 ◽  
pp. 001946622110238
Author(s):  
Shantanu De Roy ◽  
Mampi Bose
Keyword(s):  
Labour Market ◽  
Migrant Workers ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Labour Force ◽  
Labour Markets ◽  
Indian States ◽  
Informal Workers ◽  
Rural And Urban ◽  
Urban Counterpart ◽  
Gender Groups

Indian labour markets are segmented based on caste, gender groups, region, types of workers and types of contractual arrangements. An important feature of the labour markets in India, notwithstanding intersectionalities across segments, is greater access to high-quality work with social security benefits to the privileged sections of the society as compared to the socially oppressed sections, including women. The latter dominate in low-quality, less stable and insecure work in the informal sector.The COVID-19 pandemic and associated lockdown measures have increased the vulnerability of the informal workers, including the migrant workers. The article analyses the features of rural and urban labour markets, prior to the outbreak of the pandemic, that had contributed to vulnerability of the workforce. The analysis was based on the National Statistical Office ( NSO, 2020 )—Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) database of 2018–2019, NSSO (2014)—Report of the Situation of Agricultural Households in India, NSSO (2014)—Employment and Unemployment Survey, Labour Bureau, and the Economic Survey of India. It also analyses the impacts of the pandemic on the rural labour market based on the Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE) database. Our analysis reveals that the rural labour market in India was more adversely affected by the lockdown measures than the urban counterpart. In the rural areas, there was collapse of non-farm employment and increased participation in agricultural work was largely an outcome of distress. Furthermore, reverse migration of workers had led to sharp decline in remittances, particularly in the eastern Indian states that are largely agrarian and poor. The article advocates policy initiatives that include expansion of the rural employment programmes for providing relief to the poor and working population in India.

scholarly journals Dynamism in the Gender Wage Gap: Evidence from Pakistan

2007 ◽  
Vol 46 (4II) ◽  
pp. 865-882 ◽  
Author(s):  
Muhammad Sabir ◽  
Zehra Aftab
Keyword(s):  
Labour Market ◽  
Gender Gap ◽  
Gender Discrimination ◽  
Gender Wage Gap ◽  
Wage Gap ◽  
Labour Force ◽  
Labour Force Participation ◽  
Wage Distribution ◽  
Socioeconomic Indicators ◽  
Almost All

One of the main caveats of Pakistan’s economic development history is the persistence of gender inequality with respect to almost all socioeconomic indicators. For instance, Pakistan ranks 66, out of 75 countries, with respect to the Gender Empowerment Measure (Human Development Report, 2006) with a GEM value of 0.377, largely a manifestation of very low estimated female to male earned income ratio, which is a depressing 0.29. GEM and other labour force statistics confirm the gender gap in labour force participation. One of the possible explanations of this gender gap is gender discrimination in the labour market, particularly in wages. Evidence with respect to gender discrimination in Pakistan’s labour market is welldocumented. Siddique, et al. (2006), Nasir and Nazli (2000), Siddique, et al. (1998) and Ashraf and Ashraf (1993) all confirm that men earn higher wages than women even after controlling for measurable characteristics affecting their productivity. These studies, however, analyse the gender wage gap by comparing the mean male/female wage. Studies which compare the gender wage gap at different points along the wage distribution are not available for Pakistan.

scholarly journals National report 2009-2019 - Rural NEET in Poland

2020 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Labour Market ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Labour Force ◽  
Population Data ◽  
Economic Transformation ◽  
Labour Market Situation ◽  
The Past ◽  
Market Situation ◽  
The Difference

The report outlines the evolution of the labour market situation of young people in Poland between 2009 and 2019. Particular attention was paid to describe how the situation has changed across different age subgroups and degree of urbanization. The analysis includes descriptive statistics of the selected labour market indicators (employment and unem-ployment rate, NEET rate) along with educational and population data extracted from the Eurostat public datasets. The report shows that youth population in Poland has been declining over the past decade, especially in cities and rural areas. Labour market situation of young Poles worsened in the aftermath of financial and economic crisis. Since 2013 is has improved considerably. In 2019,the unemployment rate was below the pre-recession level and the lowest since the political and economic transformation. The pattern of labour market situation evolution was similar across all age subgroups and degrees of urbanisation, although those from the younger sub-groups were more vulnerable to economic fluctuations. In 2019, the difference between rural and urban areas in the unemployment level was minor. The employment rate and the NEET rate, however, was clearly higher in cities which suggests that many of those living in towns and rural areas remain outside the labour force. The level of school dropouts among youth is one of the lowest in the EU and has been relatively stable over the past decade. It is slightly higher in towns and rural areas than in cities, but the difference is not significant.

scholarly journals DISABLED PEOPLE ON THE LABOUR MARKET IN POLAND – FOCUS ON RURAL AREAS OF THE MASOVIAN VOIVODSHIP

2020 ◽  
Vol XXII (1) ◽  
pp. 312-321
Author(s):  
Paulina Stolarczyk ◽  
Michał Wielechowski
Keyword(s):  
Labour Market ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Economic Activity ◽  
Positive Impact ◽  
Labour Force ◽  
Original Data ◽  
Disabled People ◽  
Central Statistical ◽  
Central Statistical Office ◽  
High Employment

The aim of the paper was to present and assess the economic activity of disabled people on the Polish labour market from a country, voivodship, and Masovian Voivodship rural areas’ perspective. The study used data from the Labour Force Survey in Poland collected by the Central Statistical Office and original data collected by a questionnaire, using public institutions, NGOs and direct interviews. The adopted research period covered the years 2007-2018. Japanese candlestick charting as well as tabular and selected statistical methods were used to present the research results. Levels of analysed Polish labour market indicators for disabled people increased noticeably in the analysed period, however persisted significantly below those for non-disabled people. At a voivodship level, the study showed that rates and changes of economic activity in the group of disabled people differed visibly. The highest economic activity rates were observed in the Subcarpathian, Lubusz and Holy Cross voivodships, while the lowest in the West Pomeranian and Lesser Poland voivodships. In 15 voivodships, the unemployment rate decreased significantly in the analysed period. Survey results highlighted a relatively high employment rate and low earnings rates in the researched group of disabled people from the Masovian Voivodship, where the level of education had a significant positive impact on those rates.

scholarly journals Demographic Transition and Youth Employment in Pakistan

2008 ◽  
Vol 47 (1) ◽  
pp. 27-70 ◽  
Author(s):  
G. M. Arif ◽  
Nusrat Chaudhry
Keyword(s):  
Human Capital ◽  
Labour Market ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Demographic Transition ◽  
Total Population ◽  
Labour Force ◽  
Convincing Evidence ◽  
Youth Employment ◽  
Employment Policy ◽  
Demographic Surveys

There is convincing evidence that Pakistan has entered the demographic bonus phase; child dependency is declining and youth share in the total population is rising. This paper has examined youth employment in the context of demographic transition evidenced since the early 1990s. Changes in the level of educational attainment have also been analysed. The study has used the data from Pakistan Demographic Surveys and Labour Force Surveys carried out between 1990 and 2005. Findings of the study show that the benefits of demographic transition in terms of rising share of youth in the total population has partially been translated through development of their human capital and productive absorption in the local labour market. While the pace of human capital formation seems to be satisfactory in urban Pakistan, it is dismal in rural areas, particularly for females. High levels of both female inactivity across the education categories and unemployment for males as well as females urge a strong youth employment policy in Pakistan to reap the benefits of the ongoing demographic transition. Youth are a source of development, and a high priority may be placed on preparing them with the skills needed for their adjustment in the labour market.

scholarly journals Estimation of the Values of Wooden Materials in Urban Regeneration: The Case of Seoullo in Korea

2021 ◽  
Vol 13 (17) ◽  
pp. 9810
Author(s):  
Heesun Lim ◽  
Chang-Deuk Eom ◽  
Byeong-il Ahn
Keyword(s):  
Willingness To Pay ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Energy Efficient ◽  
Urban Regeneration ◽  
Economic Feasibility ◽  
Storage Effect ◽  
Wood Material ◽  
Marginal Willingness To Pay ◽  
The Government ◽  
Tax Payments

The importance of wooden buildings has been highlighted in recent years due to the energy-efficient and carbon storage effect of wood. This study investigates the willingness to pay for one-time tax payments of the citizens currently living in Seoul when Seoullo uses wood as a material for covering the surface of the facilities. The study examines the economic feasibility of Seoullo, which is a part of the government urban regeneration project that built a park on the desolate bridge in 2017. The result indicates that Seoul citizens who participated in the survey feel a greater preference for wood material rather than existing concrete used in Seoullo despite the tax burden. As a result, it is found that the respondents with children under the age of 8, respondents who are aware of the urban regeneration project, and respondents with respiratory disease have a lower marginal willingness to pay than those in the opposite groups. Moreover, the result shows that the respondents who consider farming or returning to rural areas, respondents in need of city improvement, respondents who chose wood as a preferred building material, and respondents with the experience of visiting Seoullo have a greater marginal willingness to pay for the wooden material than those in the opposite groups.

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