scholarly journals Gender Differences in Demand for Schooling

2001 ◽  
Vol 40 (4II) ◽  
pp. 1077-1092 ◽  
Author(s):  
Shahnaz Hamid ◽  
Rehana Siddiqui
Keyword(s):  
Gender Differences ◽  
Human Development ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Developed Countries ◽  
Literacy Rate ◽  
Enrolment Rate ◽  
Male And Female ◽  
Development Indicators ◽  
Female Literacy

The comparison of human development indicators in Table 1 shows that Pakistan’s performance is below the average for South Asian countries and below the average for the developing countries. Furthermore, gender differences in human development are also significant within country and across countries. For example, in 1999, differences in male and female literacy rate was 24 points in Pakistan, higher then the difference in less developed countries (equalling 15 points). [See HDC (2001)]. Similarly, within Pakistan, male literacy rate increased from 35 percent in 1980-81 to 56.6 percent in 1998-99 whereas female literacy rate increased from 16 percent in 1980-81 to 32.6 percent in 1998-99. This shows that despite doubling of female literacy rate, the gap between male and female literacy rate widened from 19 percent in 1980-81 to 24 percent in 1998-99. Similarly, another indicator of human capital, i.e., the net enrolment rates at primary level exhibited a declining trend in 1990s, particularly among males. An important reason for the decline could be rise in poverty. Table 2 shows a sustained increase in net enrolment ratio with income, and the positive income effect is higher in urban areas. In rural areas, the enrolment rate increases with income but there is slight decline in female enrolment rate at the highest income level. Thus, despite rapid rise in female enrolment the gender, differences persist and income is the main factor affecting demand for education.

Does women's literacy affect desired fertility and contraceptive use in rural–urban Pakistan?

1993 ◽  
Vol 25 (4) ◽  
pp. 445-454 ◽  
Author(s):  
Khalida P. Zaki ◽  
Nan E. Johnson
Keyword(s):  
Rural Women ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Contraceptive Use ◽  
Prevalence Survey ◽  
Literacy Rate ◽  
Women’S Perceptions ◽  
Female Literacy ◽  
Living Children ◽  
Relationship Of

SummaryThe 1984–85 Pakistan Contraceptive Prevalence Survey showed that urban wives had more than twice the literacy rate of rural wives. The present study explored the relationship of the rural–urban gap in female literacy to differences in contraceptive use. In rural areas, literacy did not increase women's perceptions of having reached a ‘sufficient’ number of living children, although the opposite was true for urban areas. Yet rural women with an ‘insufficient’ number of living children were more likely to use contraception if they were literate, as did their urban counterparts. Thus, raising the literacy rate in rural Pakistan would not narrow the rural–urban gap in contraception to cease childbearing but would narrow the rural–urban gap in contraception used to space wanted births further apart. Recommendations for government policy are made.

scholarly journals Literacy Challenges in Rural China

2021 ◽  
Vol 2 (6) ◽  
Author(s):  
Jingting Liu
Keyword(s):  
Gender Differences ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Rural China ◽  
Literacy Rate ◽  
Factors Affecting ◽  
Financial Status ◽  
Policy Interventions ◽  
Main Factors ◽  
Urban And Rural Areas

This article discusses the obstacles encountered in the process of literacy in rural China. Although China's overall literacy rate is high, there is a huge literacy rate gap between urban and rural areas. On this basis, this article explores the factors affecting the literacy rate in rural China, and concludes that the main factors are financial status, gender differences, health challenges, and policy interventions.

scholarly journals Examining country development indicators and e-waste under the moderating effect of country development levels and e-waste policy

2021 ◽  
Vol ahead-of-print (ahead-of-print) ◽  
Author(s):  
Prateek Kalia ◽  
Adil Zia ◽  
Dušan Mladenović
Keyword(s):  
Urban Population ◽  
Well Being ◽  
Developed Countries ◽  
Arch Model ◽  
Waste Generation ◽  
Literacy Rate ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Development Indicators ◽  
Waste Policy ◽  
Internet Penetration

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to investigate if country development indicators, i.e. gross domestic product per capita (GDPPC), literacy rate, internet penetration and urban population, influence the generation of e-waste on a global level. The moderation effect due to differences between countries in terms of absence or presence of e-waste policy and level of development is also checked.Design/methodology/approachThis is an archival study that builds upon data from United Nations (UN), World Bank and Global E-waste Statistics Partnership. The authors did a path analysis comprising mediation and multigroup analyses to decipher the proposed rese arch model containing data from 172 countries.FindingsThe results indicate that GDPPC, literacy rate, internet penetration and urban population do not directly influence the generation of e-waste. However, higher internet penetration in developing countries leads to higher e-waste, while higher literacy rates in developed countries suppress e-waste generation. When it comes to e-waste policy, a higher urban population without a regulatory legal framework boosts higher e-waste. The authors observed that higher internet penetration leads to higher e-waste in the presence of e-waste policy as well.Originality/valueThis is the first study to include economic well-being indicators in elaborating e-waste generation, on a global scale. No previous study has observed differences between countries nested in e-waste policy and level of development.

scholarly journals Trend of Rural Employment and Wages in Pakistan

1992 ◽  
Vol 31 (4II) ◽  
pp. 803-815 ◽  
Author(s):  
M. Ghaffar Chaudhry ◽  
Ghulam Mustafa Chaudhry
Keyword(s):  
Labour Market ◽  
Rapid Growth ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Labour Force ◽  
Mass Movement ◽  
Developed Countries ◽  
Real Wages ◽  
Rural Employment ◽  
The Masses

Trends in rural employment and wages are important in a number of ways. For example, a steady growth of job opportunities is a precondition for productive employment of labour force under rapid growth of population. Rising real wages of the working class would be essential for incessant improvements ih the standard of living of the masses. Lack of sufficient employment opportunities in rural areas together with the consequent stagnating (even declining) wages may be a potential cause of mass movement of rural labour to urban areas and attendant formidable economy-wide problems. Similarly, aggregate growth rates of employment and wages in contrast with those in productive sectors have an important bearing on trends in income distribution and poverty. Rapid growth of population, predominance of rural sector and a general lack of studies on rural labour market conditions in less developed countries, including Pakistan, call for a study such as the present one, which explores the trends of rural employment and wages in Pakistan. The paper carries four sections. Section 1 surveys the present state of the rural labour market. Section 2 reports trends in rural employment and discusses the various factors underlying those trends. Employment situation being the basic determinant, wage trends, especially those in agriculture, are highlighted in Section 3. Section 4 summarises the findings of the study and in their light makes some policy recommendations.

scholarly journals Rural areas from demographic perspective. Study case Poland and Romania

2018 ◽  
Vol 6 (1-2) ◽  
pp. 162-167
Author(s):  
Cosmina-Simona Toader ◽  
Malgorzata Zajdel ◽  
Andrea Ana Feher ◽  
Malgorzata Michalcewicz-Kaniowska
Keyword(s):  
Rural Area ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Rural Population ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Production Systems ◽  
Social Role ◽  
Developed Countries ◽  
Economic Transformation ◽  
The European Union ◽  
The Impact

The rural area is an extremely varied area, agricultural area, the area occupied by forests and grazing the surface of non-agricultural lands (Riviera sea, etc.) and rural agglomerations is a separate entity from the urban areas characterized by a high demographic concentration and vertical and horizontal structures. Being often under the impact of old production systems, characterized by accelerated development and irrational of industry, the countryside has been subject to economic transformation, social and environmental, which mostly resulted in exodus and impoverishment of the rural population. Given this situation, are downright remarkable efforts of developed countries and not only to balance rural-urban ratio, reconciliation and revival of rural areas is kept of unique material and spiritual values. Rural areas are the result of interactions between man and nature, between interdependencies relations, who are specific to diversity of social actions and their natural environment, between the material and spiritual civilization, which for centuries coexist and evolve in a particular national territory. Image of rural area is emphasized by its size, which is the synthetic expression of social activities that are conducted using specific processes and phenomena of nature. All specific features of rural areas (natural, human, material and spiritual), which define the dimension of rural areas, are highlighted by the following components of the system: territorial administrative, demographic, economic and infrastructural. European rural area was and is the subject of extensive restructuring processes that were the result of a complex interaction of social phenomena, economic, sectoral and regional transfers. In circumstances where over half of the 27 Member States of the European Union lives in rural areas, and it occupies over 80% of the total territory, rural areas have considerable potential for growth, with a vital social role. Rural population and surface area occupied and the importance of rural life for a country, make the problem of rural development to gain a national and international importance. In this article the authors presents rural areas as an important part of a country with all its components. The authors elaborated a comparative analysis of rural areas from Poland and Romania from demographic perspective. The analysis was elaborated using indicators like population density, population structure by gender and age, migrations of population, relying on data from national and european statistics.  

scholarly journals Management Education in Kerala-Impact on Employability

2018 ◽  
Vol 7 (3.6) ◽  
pp. 375
Author(s):  
K M. Pradeep ◽  
S Edmund Christopher ◽  
D Kinslin
Keyword(s):  
Human Development ◽  
Human Development Index ◽  
Management Education ◽  
The State ◽  
Literacy Rate ◽  
Development Index ◽  
Female Literacy

Kerala is the State having height in Human development Index in the Country. It has got the highest literacy rate and also number one in female literacy. In case of employment the state is not in the list of toppers in the country. We are trying to analyses why the employability is not as high as education in the state. We could find out many variables contributing to it. Primarily we are focusing how Management education in the state affects the corporate readiness of the students of Kerala, also we are trying to find out how can we improve upon and trying to suggest the required connect from the study.  

Profile of the Rural Woman of Pakistan

1998 ◽  
Vol 3 (1) ◽  
pp. 47-79
Author(s):  
Rukhsana Zia
Keyword(s):  
Human Development ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Rural Woman ◽  
Development Indicators ◽  
The World ◽  
Underdeveloped Region ◽  
Do So

The majority of Pakistani womanhood belongs to the silent, invisible peasantry in the rural areas. Essentially belonging to an underdeveloped region, the rural female toils relentlessly from morning till night. Her status is highly complex. In certain roles she is exalted; on other counts her very being is negated, which, when translated to human development indicators, depicts the profile of a woman with a very disadvantaged status, in fact, one of the lowest in the world. This study collects and collates data to present the profile of the rural female of Pakistan. It clearly shows that without concrete moves to do so, the mere acceptance and recognition of her contribution to society would do much to elevate her status.

Strategic Metamorphoses of ICT Sector for Human Development in India

2011 ◽  
pp. 257-270
Author(s):  
Meeta Mathur ◽  
Sangeeta Sharma
Keyword(s):  
Human Development ◽  
Information And Communication Technologies ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Global Economy ◽  
Development Indicators ◽  
The Rich ◽  
Ict Infrastructure ◽  
The Government ◽  
Development Levels ◽  
Technological Leapfrogging

As Indian economy gets integrated to the global economy and strives to improve in terms of human development indicators, a special role exists for information and communication technologies (ICT) in this process. The strategic metamorphoses and the resultant expansion of ICT linked telecommunication services in India have favorably influenced the effort to accelerate the pace of human development by enabling equality in access to information, creation of employment, improving the quality of life, better livelihood opportunities in rural areas, growth of agriculture, impetus to business development, environmental management and many more. After the initiation of economic planning in India, telecom services were assumed to be natural monopoly and were provided by one entity without competition. The government launched ambitious ICT infrastructure initiatives, radically changing its communication policy framework. The resultant growth of ICT services in India has led to significant improvement in human development levels. It has led to a reduction in information asymmetry between the rich and the poor, improvement in telecom density and ICT accessibility in rural areas, fostering inclusive growth, providing better access to market information to people in remote and rural areas, facilitating technological leapfrogging, enhancing business networking and offering new opportunities from the perspective of human development.

Assessment of the attractiveness of rural areas in terms of internal migration in Russia and the EU countries

2021 ◽  
pp. 40-47
Author(s):  
N.V. Vorontsova ◽  
◽  
A.V. Merzlov ◽  
R.R. Mukhametzyanov ◽  
N.G. Platonovskiy ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Internal Migration ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Urban Population ◽  
Reverse Flow ◽  
Developed Countries ◽  
Point Of View ◽  
Urban Life ◽  
Innovative Capabilities ◽  
Urban And Rural Areas

Those born in rural areas move to urban areas for both temporary and permanent residence. In general, urbanization is expanding in the world, as evidenced by the increase in the proportion of the urban population. However, recently, in parallel with urbanization, especially in the developed countries of Europe, there has been a reverse flow - the resettlement of a certain part of the urban population to the countryside. It attracts city dwellers with a comparatively better ecological situation, the presence of wide spaces and a sense of freedom. All of this is also supported by modern innovative capabilities. Information and digital technologies are increasingly blurring the boundaries between urban and rural areas. However, the attractiveness of rural areas for permanent habitation in a number of cases, including in our country, is reduced due to the lack of adequate urban living conditions for life and urban-centric state policy. This primarily affects rural areas remote from cities. At the same time, the suburbs, especially megacities, are the most attractive in terms of internal migration. It accommodates the conditions of urban life and the advantage of rural areas. The article touches upon the issues of internal migration of the urban population to the countryside in Russia and a number of European countries (on the example of France and Germany). In this regard, it was noted that this tendency exists, and with an increase in dynamics. As a result of the study, the factors that influence the decision-making by the townspeople to move to settlements located in agricultural areas were identified, and a set of criteria was proposed to assess their attractiveness from the point of view of internal migration of the population.

scholarly journals Urban Bias, Economic Resource Allocation and National Development Planning in Botswana

2016 ◽  
Vol 4 (1) ◽  
pp. 44 ◽  
Author(s):  
Latang Sechele
Keyword(s):  
Resource Allocation ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Planning Process ◽  
National Development ◽  
Developed Countries ◽  
Development Planning ◽  
Process Data ◽  
Economic Resource ◽  
Urban Bias

Michael Lipton formulated a theory of urban bias to account for the poverty and inequalities that rack many developing countries today. The theory proposes that development planning in less developed countries is biased against rural areas in that most of the economic resources are allocated to the urban areas than the rural ones making the poor to get poorer. This article seeks to apply the theory to Botswana’s development planning process. Data was obtained from the analysis of the first nine out of the ten national development plans published since independence which clearly show a distinction in economic resource allocations between rural and urban areas. The findings support the urban bias thesis and suggest its retention in studies of economic development with modifications to incorporate elite bias to account for intra-rural and intra-urban social inequalities. It also proposes diversification into non-agricultural activities as a strategy for rural development in drought prone contexts.Keywords: urban bias, resource allocation, development planning, poverty, inequality

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