scholarly journals The Implications of Nutritional Strategies that Modify Dietary Energy and Lysine for Growth Performance in Two Different Swine Production Systems

Animals ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 10 (9) ◽  
pp. 1638 ◽  
Author(s):  
Pau Aymerich ◽  
Carme Soldevila ◽  
Jordi Bonet ◽  
Josep Gasa ◽  
Jaume Coma ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Growth Performance ◽  
Feed Intake ◽  
Production Systems ◽  
Average Daily Gain ◽  
Net Energy ◽  
Swine Production ◽  
Fat Thickness ◽  
Nutritional Strategies ◽  
Positive Effect ◽  
Standardized Ileal Digestible Lysine

This work aimed to determine the impacts of lowering dietary net energy (NE) density in two swine production systems that produce pigs with different carcass traits. To ensure that dietary lysine was not limiting growth, two studies were conducted in a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement with NE and standardized ileal digestible lysine (SID Lys) as experimental factors. A total of 1248 pigs were used in each study, Pietrain (Exp. 1, males non-castrated) or Duroc (Exp. 2, males castrated) sired. Reducing NE resulted in a greater feed intake; however, this was not sufficient to reach the same NE intake. While in Exp. 1 a 3.2% lower NE intake did not impair average daily gain (ADG; p = 0.220), in Exp. 2 a 4.7% lower NE intake reduced ADG by 1.4% (p = 0.027). Furthermore, this effect on ADG entailed a reduced ham fat thickness (p = 0.004) of the first marketed pigs. Increasing SID Lys only had a positive effect in Exp. 1, but no significant interaction between NE and SID Lys was reported (p ≥ 0.100). Therefore, dietary NE can be reduced without impairing growth performance when pigs can increase feed intake sufficiently, and thus, limit energy deficiencies.

scholarly journals PSV-1 Effects of the protein level on growth performance and carcass grading in fattening pig fed ad libitum

2019 ◽  
Vol 97 (Supplement_2) ◽  
pp. 223-224
Author(s):  
Arnaud Samson ◽  
Claire Launay ◽  
Francesc Payola ◽  
Eric Schetelat ◽  
Hervé Fortune
Keyword(s):  
Growth Performance ◽  
Feed Intake ◽  
Average Daily Gain ◽  
Experimental Unit ◽  
Net Energy ◽  
Swine Industry ◽  
Synthetic Amino Acids ◽  
Growth Performances ◽  
Ad Libitum ◽  
Dietary Treatments

Abstract Reducing dietary crude protein (CP) with synthetic amino acids (AA) supplementation is beneficial for sustainable swine industry. However some discrepancies regarding the consequences on growth performance are observed. Therefore, this trial aimed to assess the effect of dietary CP level on growth performance of pigs from 35 to 113 kg BW. Growth performance of 63 pigs fed ad libitum and allocated to three groups (HH, MM and LL) was compared. Each group received one level of CP (‘H’ for High, ‘M’ for Medium and ‘L’ for Low) during growing (d0–d35) and finishing (d35–slaugther day) periods: 15.1%, 16.2%, 17.2% and 13.0%, 14.0%, 15.1% respectively. Diets were mostly based on wheat, corn and soybean meal. Within each feeding phase, diets were formulated to be similar in apparent total tract digestible phosphorus, net energy and standardized ileal digestible (SID) essential AA, the SID Lys levels being 0.95% and 0.78% during the growing and finishing period respectively. Data were analyzed using a linear model (R, 3.1.2) with individual as the experimental unit as feed intake, body weight and carcass grading were individually recorded. From d0 to d14 and from d35 to d63, average daily gain (ADG) and Growth:Feed ratio (G:F) were significantly reduced as the CP level decreased (P < 0.05) while average daily feed intake (ADFI) remained unaffected by the dietary treatments. From d14 to d35 and in late finishing period (d63-slaugther day), growth performance was not significantly affected by the dietary CP level. Over the 82-d of the experiment, G:F was significantly higher for ‘HH’ pigs (P < 0.01). Overall, ADG tended to be reduced as CP levels decreased (P = 0.10). There was no difference among treatments for parameters concerning carcass grading (lean meat percentage and meat yield). In conclusion, reducing CP levels while maintaining essential AA levels impaired growth performances of pigs.

scholarly journals Effects of corn distillers dried grains with solubles in finishing diets on pig growth performance and carcass yield with two different marketing strategies

2020 ◽  
Vol 4 (2) ◽  
pp. 737-749
Author(s):  
Annie B Lerner ◽  
Mike D Tokach ◽  
Joel M DeRouchey ◽  
Steve S Dritz ◽  
Robert D Goodband ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Growth Performance ◽  
Feed Intake ◽  
Average Daily Gain ◽  
Optimal Time ◽  
Feeding Time ◽  
Net Energy ◽  
Carcass Yield ◽  
Distillers Dried Grains ◽  
Dietary Switch ◽  
Corn Distillers

Abstract Feeding diets high in corn distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) before market can negatively impact carcass yield, hot carcass weight (HCW), and belly fat iodine value (IV). Two experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of switching from DDGS-based to corn-soybean meal (CSBM)-based diets at increasing intervals (withdrawal periods) before harvest on finishing pig performance and carcass characteristics. Diets in both experiments contained either 0% or 30% DDGS and were balanced for net energy (NE). In Exp. 1, 985 pigs (initially 99.6 kg body weight [BW]) were used with 12 pens per treatment. The four treatments were increasing DDGS withdrawal periods: 28, 21, 14, or 0 d (no dietary switch) before marketing. All pens were marketed by removing the 17% heaviest pigs 21 d before slaughter and the remaining 83% all slaughtered 21 d later. Overall, there was no evidence for treatment differences on final BW, average daily feed intake, or feed efficiency (G:F;P &gt; 0.10); however, average daily gain (ADG) increased (linear, P = 0.022) and belly fat IV decreased (linear, P = 0.001) the longer pigs were fed CSBM diets. There was no evidence for differences for HCW (P &gt; 0.10); however, carcass yield increased (linear, P = 0.001) with increasing time following the switch to CSBM. Backfat depth decreased and percentage lean increased as CSBM feeding time increased (quadratic; P &lt; 0.05). In Exp. 2, 1,158 pigs (initially 105 kg BW) were used in a 35-d study. There were 15 pens per treatment and four treatments of increasing DDGS withdrawal periods: 35, 28, 14, or 0 d (no dietary switch). All pens were marketed by removing the 15% heaviest pigs on day 28, the 28% heaviest pigs on day 14, and a final marketing of approximately 57% of starting barn inventory. There was no evidence that final BW, ADG, G:F, or HCW differed among dietary treatments (P &gt; 0.10). Average daily feed intake and carcass yield increased and belly fat IV decreased (P &lt; 0.050); the longer pigs were fed CSBM. In conclusion, growth performance was minimally impacted following dietary switch from DDGS- to CSBM-based diets, possibly due to similar dietary NE. For carcass yield and belly fat IV, the optimal time to make a dietary switch from high to low fiber appears to be linear in nature and at least 28 d before marketing.

The effect of feeding crude glycerol on growth performance and nutrient digestibility in weaned pigs

2009 ◽  
Vol 89 (1) ◽  
pp. 85-89 ◽  
Author(s):  
R T Zijlstra ◽  
K. Menjivar ◽  
E. Lawrence ◽  
E. Beltranena
Keyword(s):  
Growth Performance ◽  
Crude Glycerol ◽  
Average Daily Gain ◽  
Nutrient Digestibility ◽  
Net Energy ◽  
Weaned Pigs ◽  
Weaned Pig ◽  
Daily Gain ◽  
Effect Of Feeding ◽  
Standardized Ileal Digestible Lysine

The effects of substituting wheat with crude glycerol as a dietary energy source were evaluated. Seventy-two weaned pigs were fed for 4 wk one of three pelleted wheat-based diets containing 0, 4, or 8% glycerol and formulated to 2.28 Mcal kg-1 net energy (NE) and 5.02 g standardized ileal digestible lysine Mcal-1 NE. For day 0 to 28, body weight increased linearly (P = 0.04); pigs fed 8% glycerol were 1.11 kg heavier than pigs fed 0% glycerol. Glycerol inclusion tended to increase average daily gain linearly (P = 0.066) and increased average daily feed intake quadratically (P = 0.037) without affecting feed efficiency (P > 0.10). Feeding up to 8% dietary crude glycerol by substituting wheat can enhance the growth performance of weaned pigs. Key words: Co-product, digestibility, glycerol, weaned pig

scholarly journals 198 Effects of different dietary standardized ileal digestible lysine specifications on growth performance of grow-finish pigs

2020 ◽  
Vol 98 (Supplement_3) ◽  
pp. 56-57
Author(s):  
Ning Lu ◽  
Carine Vier ◽  
Wayne Cast ◽  
Uislei Orlando ◽  
Dan Hamilton ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Growth Performance ◽  
Feed Intake ◽  
Block Design ◽  
Average Daily Gain ◽  
Experimental Unit ◽  
Randomized Complete Block Design ◽  
Similar Growth ◽  
Daily Gain ◽  
Growth Trial ◽  
Standardized Ileal Digestible Lysine

Abstract The objective was to determine the effects of different standardized ileal digestible (SID) lysine (Lys) specifications on performance of grow-finish pigs. A total of 2,106 pigs (PIC 359×Camborough, initially 22.0±0.43 kg) were used in a 72-d growth trial with 27 pigs per pen and 13 pens per treatment in a randomized complete block design. Pigs were fed corn-soybean-meal-based diets in three phases from 22-41, 41-62, and 62-91 kg body weight (BW). Treatments consisted of low (L) or high (H) SID Lys in each phase: LLL (1.05, 0.88, and 0.73%); LLH (1.05, 0.88, and 0.82%); LHH (1.05, 0.99, and 0.82%); HLL (1.18, 0.88, and 0.73%); HHL (1.18, 0.99, and 0.73%); and HHH (1.18, 0.99, and 0.82%). Lysine curves from PIC2008 and PIC2016 nutrient specification manuals were used to estimate SID Lys levels for L or H diets, respectively. Data were analyzed using generalized linear mixed models with pen as the experimental unit. From 22-41 kg, feeding high Lys improved (P&lt; 0.10) average daily gain (ADG), feed efficiency (G:F), and final BW compared to low Lys. From 22-62 kg, feeding HH Lys increased (P&lt; 0.05) ADG compared feeding LL or HL Lys. Pigs fed HH Lys or LH Lys had improved (P&lt; 0.05) G:F compared to those fed LL Lys. Pigs fed LH or HH Lys had greater (P&lt; 0.05) final BW compared to pigs fed HL. Pigs fed HH Lys had greater (P&lt; 0.05) feed intake compared to pigs fed HL. From 22-91 kg, there was no evidence for differences in ADG, feed intake, G:F, or final BW. In summary, pigs fed 1.18% SID Lys had improved ADG, G:F, and final BW compared to pigs fed 1.05% SID Lys from 22-41 kg. Feeding a range of Lys specifications resulted in similar growth performance from 22-91 kg.

159 Evaluation of Bacillus Subtilis PB6 Probiotic (CLOSTAT® 500) on Feedlot Phase Growth Performance, Efficiency of Dietary Net Energy Utilization, and Fecal and Subiliac Lymph Node Salmonella Prevalence

2021 ◽  
Vol 99 (Supplement_1) ◽  
pp. 119-120
Author(s):  
Zachary K Smith ◽  
Paul Rand R Broadway ◽  
Keith Underwood ◽  
Warren C Rusche ◽  
Julie Walker ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Bacillus Subtilis ◽  
Lymph Node ◽  
Lymph Nodes ◽  
Growth Performance ◽  
Block Design ◽  
Average Daily Gain ◽  
Energy Utilization ◽  
Experimental Unit ◽  
Net Energy ◽  
Fecal Samples

Abstract Yearling beef steers (n = 238; initial BW=402 ± 31.2 kg) were used to evaluate a Bacillus subtilis probiotic on growth performance, dietary net energy (NE) utilization, carcass characteristics, and fecal and subiliac lymph node Salmonella prevalence during a 140-d finishing period. Steers were allotted to 24 pens (n = 9 to 10 steers/pen) and assigned to one of two treatments (12 pens/treatment): no probiotic (CON) or 0.50 g·steer-1·d-1 of a Bacillus subtilis PB6 probiotic (CLOSTAT® 500, Kemin Industries, Des Moines, IA; CLO). Steers were transitioned to a 90% concentrate diet (DM basis) over 14-d. Steers were fed once daily at 0700 h; bunks were managed according to a slick bunk management. Fecal samples were collected on d 1, 28, 56, 112, and 140 from each pen (n = 5 steers/pen) via rectal palpation and composited by pen for determination of Salmonella prevalence. Upon harvest, subiliac lymph nodes were obtained from 60 steers in CON and 57 steers in CLO. Data were analyzed as a randomized complete block design; pen was the experimental unit; α of 0.05 determined significance. No differences were detected (P ≥ 0.25) between treatments for live or carcass-adjusted average daily gain, dry matter intake, gain efficiency, dietary NE utilization, nor calculated dietary NE content based upon performance. No differences were detected between treatments for any carcass traits (P ≥ 0.15). Salmonella was not recovered in any fecal samples except on d 112, where steers from CLO had a numerically lower (P = 0.17; 8.3 vs. 25.0%) incidence of fecal Salmonella compared to CON and on d 140 fecal, where Salmonella incidence did not differ (P = 0.34; 0.0 vs. 8.3%) for CON and CLO, respectively. Salmonella was not recovered in any subiliac lymph nodes. These data indicate that CLO did not influence growth performance or Salmonella prevalence.

scholarly journals Impact of a phytogenic feed additive on growth performance, feed intake, and carcass traits of finishing steers

2019 ◽  
Vol 3 (4) ◽  
pp. 1162-1172
Author(s):  
Tassilo Brand ◽  
Martin Hünerberg ◽  
Tim A McAllister ◽  
Maolong He ◽  
Atef M Saleem ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Growth Performance ◽  
Feed Intake ◽  
Dry Matter ◽  
Average Daily Gain ◽  
Carcass Traits ◽  
Feed Additive ◽  
Muscle Area ◽  
Mineral Supplement ◽  
Liver Abscesses ◽  
Finishing Steers

Abstact: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of a phytogenic feed additive (Digestarom [DA]; Biomin, Getzersdorf, Austria) on growth performance, feed intake, carcass traits, fatty acid composition, and liver abscesses of finishing steers. One hundred twenty Angus × Charolais crossbred steers (488 ± 26.5 kg) were used in a 110-d feeding experiment. Steers were blocked by weight and randomly assigned to 12 pens with 10 steers per pen. Each pen was allocated to one of three diets. Each diet contained 86.5% barley, 10.0% barley silage, and 3.5% vitamin and mineral supplement on a dry matter (DM) basis. The diets contained 0, 0.05, and 0.1 g DA/kg complete diet (DM basis), to achieve average daily DA intakes of 0 (control), 0.5 (LowDA), and 1.0 g (HighDA) per steer. Diets were prepared once daily and provided ad libitum. Two pens per treatment were equipped to record individual feed intake behavior. Steers were weighed every 28 d and carcass traits and liver scores were recorded at slaughter. Dry matter intake (average: 9.34 kg/d) did not differ (P &gt; 0.05) among diets. Average daily gain tended to increase linearly as DA increased (control: 1.82; LowDA: 1.87; and HighDA: 1.95 kg/d; P &lt; 0.09), but gain:feed ratio was not affected. Supplementation of DA affected longissimus muscle area quadratically (P = 0.05) with the largest area observed for LowDA. However, dressing percentage decreased linearly in response to increasing level of DA (P &lt; 0.01). Total abscessed livers were not affected, whereas proportion of severe liver abscesses was numerically lower with DA (30.8% and 42.5% for LowDA and HighDA) compared to the control (50%).

PSX-B-5 Effect of replacement of dry-rolled corn with un-processed rye on growth performance, efficiency of dietary net energy utilization, and carcass traits of finishing heifers

2021 ◽  
Vol 99 (Supplement_3) ◽  
pp. 458-459
Author(s):  
Keith M Buckhaus ◽  
Warren C Rusche ◽  
Zachary K Smith
Keyword(s):  
Body Weight ◽  
Growth Performance ◽  
Block Design ◽  
Average Daily Gain ◽  
Estradiol Benzoate ◽  
Energy Utilization ◽  
Net Energy ◽  
Final Body Weight ◽  
Trenbolone Acetate ◽  
Finishing Diets

Abstract Continental × British beef heifers were used in a randomized complete block design experiment to evaluate the effects of replacing dry-rolled corn with unprocessed rye on growth performance, efficiency of dietary net energy (NE) utilization, and carcass trait responses in finishing heifers. Heifers (n = 56; 433 ± 34.0 kg) were transported 241 km from a regional sale barn to the Ruminant Nutrition Center in Brookings, SD. Heifers were blocked by weight grouping and then allotted to pens (n = 7 heifers/pen and 4 pens/treatment). Treatments included a finishing diet that contained 60% grain (DM basis) as dry-rolled corn (DRC) or unprocessed rye grain (RYE). On d 14, heifers were consuming the final diet and were implanted with 200 mg of trenbolone acetate and 28 mg of estradiol benzoate (Synovex-Plus, Zoetis, Parsippany, NJ). RYE heifers had decreased (P ≤ 0.01) final body weight, average daily gain, and gain efficiency; but tended (P = 0.08) to have a greater dry matter intake compared to DRC. RYE had decreased (P ≤ 0.01) observed dietary NE and decreased (P ≤ 0.01) observed-to-expected dietary NE ratio for maintenance and gain compared to DRC. Dressing percentage, 12th rib fat thickness, ribeye area, and the distribution of USDA yield and quality grades were not altered (P ≥ 0.12) by diet. Hot carcass weight, yield grade, estimated empty body fat (EBF), and body weight at 28% EBF decreased (P ≤ 0.02) and retail yield increased (P= 0.01) in RYE compared to DRC. These data indicate that unprocessed rye is a palatable feed ingredient for inclusion in finishing diets for beef cattle and that rye inclusion only minimally influences carcass quality. The feeding value of unprocessed rye is considerably less (21.4%) than that of dry-rolled corn using current standards and approximately 91% of the NE value of processed rye.

scholarly journals Nigerian Fulani ecotype chickens - I – Growth performance under two production systems

2019 ◽  
Vol 46 (3) ◽  
pp. 1-9
Author(s):  
A. R. Sanusi ◽  
 S. O.  Oseni
Keyword(s):  
Growth Performance ◽  
Production System ◽  
Production Systems ◽  
Statistical Significance ◽  
Average Daily Gain ◽  
Litter Production ◽  
Poultry Production ◽  
Smallholder Farming ◽  
Significant Interaction Effect ◽  
Significant Difference

The rearing of indigenous chickens is an integral part of the smallholder farming systems in  developing countries, where they are kept by the rural poor to satisfy multiple functions Thus,  the growth performance of Nigerian Fulani ecotype chicken (NFEC) under intensive and  pastured poultry production systems was evaluated. Two hundred, day-old chicks of Nigerian  Fulani ecotype chicken (NFEC) were obtained. The chickens were separated randomly to  intensive and pastured poultry production systems at 12 weeks of age. Data on body weight  ® were taken weekly from day-old to 20 weeks. Data were analyzed using PROC GLM of SAS at statistical significance level of P<0.05. Results showed significant effect of sex of chicken  th th from the 10 to the 20 week of age (P<0.05). Significant interaction effect was observed  between sex and production system at weeks 16 and 18 (P<0.05) when the male chickens  under the intensive production system outpaced their male counterparts in the pastured  poultry. Average daily gain for the period of 20 weeks was 6.83g and 9.21g for female and  male chickens, respectively. Weight gain pattern across weeks was not uniform. There was no  significant difference in the growth rate in the two production systems (P>0.05). The study  revealed that little disparity exists in growth performance of NFEC under the pastured and  deep-litter production systems. 

scholarly journals Evaluation of hybrid rye on growth performance, carcass traits, and efficiency of net energy utilization in finishing steers

2020 ◽  
Vol 4 (3) ◽  
Author(s):  
Warren C Rusche ◽  
Julie Ann Walker ◽  
Peter Sexton ◽  
Rebecca S Brattain ◽  
Zachary K Smith
Keyword(s):  
Growth Performance ◽  
Average Daily Gain ◽  
Carcass Traits ◽  
Energy Utilization ◽  
Carcass Weight ◽  
Experimental Unit ◽  
Net Energy ◽  
Complete Replacement ◽  
Finishing Steers ◽  
Hybrid Rye

Abstract Crossbred beef steers with a high percentage of Angus ancestry [n = 240, initial shrunk body weight (BW), 404 ± 18.5 kg] were used in a 117-d feedlot experiment to evaluate the effect of hybrid rye (Rye; KWS Cereals USA, LLC, Champaign, IL) as a replacement for dry-rolled corn (DRC) on growth performance, carcass traits, and comparative net energy (NE) value in diets fed to finishing steers. Rye from a single hybrid (KWS Bono) with an ergot alkaloid concentration of 392 ppb was processed with a roller mill to a processing index (PI) of 78.8 ± 2.29. Four treatments were used in a completely randomized design (n = 6 pens/treatment; 10 steers/pen), where DRC (PI = 86.9 ± 4.19) was replaced by varying proportions of Rye [DRC:Rye, dry matter (DM) basis (60:0), (40:20), (20:40), and (0:60)]. Liver abscess scores and carcass characteristics were collected at the abattoir. Carcass-adjusted performance was calculated from hot carcass weight (HCW)/0.625. Performance-adjusted NE was calculated using carcass-adjusted average daily gain (ADG), DM intake (DMI), and mean equivalent shrunk BW with the comparative NE values for rye calculated using the replacement technique. Data were analyzed using the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS 9.4 (SAS Inst. Inc., Cary, NC) with pen as the experimental unit. Treatment effects were tested using linear and quadratic contrasts, as well as between diets with and without Rye. Replacing DRC with Rye linearly decreased (P ≤ 0.01) carcass-adjusted final BW, ADG, DMI, and gain:feed (G:F). Feeding rye linearly decreased HCW and longissimus muscle area (P ≤ 0.04). Distributions of liver scores and USDA grades for quality and yield were unaffected by treatment (P ≥ 0.09). Estimated replacement NE for maintenance (NEm) and gain (NEg) values for rye, when included at 60% of diet DM, were 1.90 and 1.25 Mcal/kg, respectively. Rye can be a suitable feed ingredient in finishing diets for feedlot steers. Estimated replacement values of Rye when fed at 60% of diet DM closely agreed with current tabular standards but, when included at 20% of diet DM, estimated NEm and NEg values of Rye were increased 9.5% and 12.8%, respectively. Net energy value of Rye for gain is approximately 84% compared to DRC; thus, the complete replacement of DRC with Rye depressed DMI, ADG, G:F, and carcass weight.

scholarly journals Effects of Dietary Forage Proportion on Feed Intake, Growth Performance, Nutrient Digestibility, and Enteric Methane Emissions of Holstein Heifers at Various Growth Stages

Animals ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 9 (10) ◽  
pp. 725 ◽  
Author(s):  
Lifeng Dong ◽  
Binchang Li ◽  
Qiyu Diao
Keyword(s):  
Growth Performance ◽  
Feed Intake ◽  
Linear Prediction ◽  
Production Systems ◽  
Nutrient Digestibility ◽  
Accurate Estimation ◽  
Average Weight ◽  
Growth Stages ◽  
Ch4 Emissions ◽  
Enteric Methane

Enteric methane (CH4) emissions from young ruminants contribute to a substantial proportion of atmospheric CH4 accumulation. Development of emission inventory and mitigation approaches needs accurate estimation of individual emission from animals under various physiological conditions and production systems. This research investigated the effect of different dietary concentrate contents on feed intake, growth performance, nutrient digestibility and CH4 emissions of heifers at various stages, and also developed linear or non-linear prediction equations using data measured by sulphur hexafluoride tracer technique. Increasing dietary concentrate contents increased feed intake and growth rate, enhanced nutrient digestibility, and reduced enteric CH4 emissions. Heifers at the age of 9, 12, and 15 months with an average weight of 267.7, 342.1, and 418.6 kg produced 105.2, 137.4, and 209.4 g/day of CH4, and have an average value of CH4 energy per gross energy intake (Ym) 0.054, 0.064, 0.0667, respectively. Equations relating CH4 emission values with animal and feed characteristics were developed with high determination coefficients for heifers at different growth stages. Dietary concentrate contents had significant influence on overall performance of heifers. These data can be used to develop regional or national emission inventories and mitigation approaches for heifers under various production regimes in China.

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