scholarly journals The Holy Alliance: Prerequisites, Creation and Plans for Establishing International Law

1970 ◽  
pp. 41-46
Author(s):  
Valeriia Ostashova ◽  
Yevheniia Lypii ◽  
Artem Pyvovar
Keyword(s):  
International Law ◽  
Napoleonic Wars ◽  
Law And Order ◽  
Crimean War ◽  
Security Institution ◽  
The World ◽  
Almost All ◽  
Peace In Europe ◽  
Vague Statement

The article describes the prerequisites, the creation and the plans of the Holy Alliance to establish international law and order. The end of the Napoleonic wars was marked by the Congress of Vienna. Its participants sought to restore the rule of the nobility in the conquered states of Napoleon. Based on the so-called principle of legitimacy, Congress supported the restoration on the thrones of former dynasties and noble orders in many countries. In the first place, each of the participating countries sought to meet their invasive goals, to profit from the redistribution of Europe and the colonies. In order to consolidate the conquests of, Alexander I initiated the formation of a permanent organization – the Holy Alliance. It was a kind of ideological and military-political superstructure over the “Viennese system” of diplomatic relations, founded under the guise of Christianity. The text of the union treaty in its form and content was atypical, unlike other international agreements. This has led many international law professionals to treat it as a declaration. The organization had existed until the mid-19th century before the Crimean War, although contradictions in the alliance have been around since the 1920s. The treaty of the Holy Alliance was concluded in Paris on September 14 (26) 1815 by the governments of Russia, Austria and Prussia. It was a rather vague statement about the mutual assistance and cooperation of all Christian states. Under the terms of the treaty, everyone who recognized him could join the alliance. After approval, almost all European rulers, except the Pope, the head of the Christian world who considered his signature superfluous, and the Turkish Sultan who professed Islam, joined him. England also did not join the alliance, though proposals from the founders were. It should be said that in England, the treaty was treated with the greatest caution. The absence of the Holy See’s signature in England did not prevent her from being an active participant in all its congresses. The original task of the Holy Alliance was to fulfill the role of a communication platform in which the leading powers of the world would coordinate their actions to ensure peace in Europe, preventing aggression that could harm the security of international law and order on the continent. With varying success, but in the first years of existence of the alliance these goals were achieved. The Holy Alliance was the first collective security institution in the world after the Napoleonic wars.

scholarly journals The Two Wars

2021 ◽  
pp. 277-301
Author(s):  
Ozan Ozavci
Keyword(s):  
Civil Wars ◽  
Alternative Assessment ◽  
Great Powers ◽  
Great Power ◽  
Napoleonic Wars ◽  
Crimean War ◽  
Death Toll ◽  
The World ◽  
Peace In Europe ◽  
Concert Of Europe

The first inter-imperial war amongst the Great Powers since the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, the Crimean War (1853–1856) shook the world and devastated peoples, economies, and finances. Some historians argue that it symbolized the destruction of the Concert of Europe. This chapter offers an alternative assessment. It shows that the Concert continued to exist after 1856 even though the peace established on the heels of the Crimean War was delicate and repeatedly tested peace in Europe and the Levant. Like the aftershocks of a disastrous earthquake, its aftermath witnessed further Great Power wars, civil strifes, and rebellions. The precarious climate that emerged at the time dovetailed with the existing and newly emerging tensions in Mount Lebanon. These snowballed into further fighting in the mountain during the summer of 1860—a much more devastating conflict, with a death toll around three to five times greater than the civil wars of 1841 and 1845 combined.

ON EVALUATION OF THE ROLE OF THERMAL AND WIND FACTORS FOR A PHYSICAL MODEL OF THE WORLD OCEAN GENERAL CIRCULATION SYSTEM

2019 ◽  
Vol 47 (3) ◽  
pp. 80-91
Author(s):  
V. G. Neiman
Keyword(s):  
Physical Model ◽  
Ocean Circulation ◽  
General Circulation ◽  
World Ocean ◽  
Circulation System ◽  
The Public ◽  
The World ◽  
Almost All ◽  
Conceptual Foundations

The main content of the work consists of certain systematization and addition of longexisting, but eventually deformed and partly lost qualitative ideas about the role of thermal and wind factors that determine the physical mechanism of the World Ocean’s General Circulation System (OGCS). It is noted that the conceptual foundations of the theory of the OGCS in one form or another are contained in the works of many well-known hydrophysicists of the last century, but the aggregate, logically coherent description of the key factors determining the physical model of the OGCS in the public literature is not so easy to find. An attempt is made to clarify and concretize some general ideas about the two key blocks that form the basis of an adequate physical model of the system of oceanic water masses motion in a climatic scale. Attention is drawn to the fact that when analyzing the OGCS it is necessary to take into account not only immediate but also indirect effects of thermal and wind factors on the ocean surface. In conclusion, it is noted that, in the end, by the uneven flow of heat to the surface of the ocean can be explained the nature of both external and almost all internal factors, in one way or another contributing to the excitation of the general, or climatic, ocean circulation.

Conclusions

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Amy Strecker
Keyword(s):  
International Law ◽  
Eu Law ◽  
World Heritage Convention ◽  
State Practice ◽  
The World ◽  
State Obligations ◽  
Made In ◽  
Landscape Protection

The final chapter of this book advances four main conclusions on the role of international law in landscape protection. These relate to state obligations regarding landscape protection, the influence of the World Heritage Convention and the European Landscape Convention, the substantive and procedural nature of landscape rights, and the role of EU law. It is argued that, although state practice is lagging behind the normative developments made in the field of international landscape protection, landscape has contributed positively to the corpus of international cultural heritage law and indeed has emerged as a nascent field of international law in its own right.

Customary International Law

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Pierre-Marie Dupuy ◽  
Keyword(s):  
General Practice ◽  
International Law ◽  
Complex Relationship ◽  
Customary International Law ◽  
Progressive Development ◽  
The World ◽  
International Law Commission ◽  
Law Commission

International custom “as evidence of a general practice accepted as law”, is considered one of the two main sources of international law as it primarily derives from the conduct of sovereign States, but is also closely connected with the role of the international judge when identifying the applicable customary rule, a function it shares with the bodies in charge of its codification (and progressive development), starting with the International Law Commission. Though mainly considered to be general international law, international custom has a complex relationship with many specific fields of law and specific regions of the world. The editor provides comprehensive research published in the last seven decades, invaluable to everyone interested in the field of customary international law.

The Role of Municipalities in the Management of Social Work Practices in Turkey

2021 ◽  
pp. 324-338
Author(s):  
Sami Kalaycı
Keyword(s):  
Social Work ◽  
Public Services ◽  
Work Practices ◽  
New Period ◽  
The World ◽  
Almost All ◽  
Metropolitan Municipalities ◽  
Central Management ◽  
Mega Cities

Almost all countries in the world intervene in social problems depending on their own social structure and management systems. They also aim to offer rapid and effective social work policies and practices for women, children, elders, young, and disabled people. To do so, governments need to execute social work practices through local managements along with central management. The 1980s were a beginning of a new period for the management of public services. Specifically, localization and globalization directly affected the view that not only central management, but also local managements need to be strengthened. In 1984, Turkey enforced metropolitan municipalities law and formed another stage of management in mega cities. During the 1990s, social work practices implemented in mage cities like Istanbul, Ankara, and Konya were like a sample study for many other municipalities within the country. Thus, soon after the juridical reforms beginning in the early 2000s, municipalities took over remarkable responsibilities in local social work practices.

scholarly journals International Trade and Development Law: A Legal Cultural Critique

2011 ◽  
Vol 4 (2) ◽  
Author(s):  
Colin Picker
Keyword(s):  
International Trade ◽  
International Law ◽  
International Development ◽  
Effective Interaction ◽  
Legal Culture ◽  
Cultural Critique ◽  
Legal Systems ◽  
Legal Traditions ◽  
The World

To the extent that international trade and development policy employs legal methods, institutions and participants, there is a need to take into account the role of legal culture. There are many different legal cultures in the world, including the widely found common and civil law traditions, as well as the many non-western legal traditions and sub-traditions found within the hundreds of different legal systems spread across the globe. International law has, however, traditionally eschewed consideration of legal culture—arguing that international law is unique, is sui generis, and as such domestic legal traditions were not relevant. Yet, the humans involved in creating and nurturing international legal fields and institutions will themselves reflect the legal culture of their home states, and will often import aspects of those legal cultures into international law. The same must be true of international development law. In addition, international legal fields, such as international development law, must often work within domestic legal systems, and as such they will directly interact with the domestic legal traditions. It is thus important to understand the interaction between the legal cultures reflected in the relevant part of that international law and in that of the domestic legal system. Such an understanding can be useful in ensuring the effective interaction of the two systems. This paper explores these themes, continuing the author’s past and ongoing consideration of the role of legal culture in international law, including its role within institutions such as the World Trade Organization.

Institutions of International Law and the Development of Regional Forum for Peaceful Dialogue in South Asia

2006 ◽  
Vol 1 ◽  
pp. 1-18 ◽  
Author(s):  
Javaid Rehman
Keyword(s):  
South Asia ◽  
International Law ◽  
South Asian ◽  
Regional Cooperation ◽  
Regional Institutions ◽  
Political Conflicts ◽  
The World ◽  
Peace And Security ◽  
Substantial Risk

AbstractSince 11 September 2001, international law and the community it governs are at a crossroads. While the world appears to be besieged by terrorist threats from non-state actors such as the Al-Qaeda, there is also a substantial risk of super-power unilateralism and arrogance. Amidst these crises, South-Asia occupies a sensitive and vulnerable position. The region is also beset with ethnic, religious, and domestic political conflicts which provide substantial threats to regional peace and security. Against the backdrop of the enormous complications faced by South Asia, the present article considers the role of international and regional institutions in developing forums for establishing peace and security for the region, as well greater promotion of human rights. A particular focus is upon the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) which, it is contended, is an organisation capable of providing a suitable platform for peaceful dialogue within South-Asia.

Baku Oil and Transcaucasian Pipelines, 1883–1891: A Study in Tsarist Economic Policy

Slavic Review ◽  
1984 ◽  
Vol 43 (4) ◽  
pp. 604-623 ◽  
Author(s):  
John P. McKay
Keyword(s):  
Economic History ◽  
Industrial Development ◽  
Crimean War ◽  
Leading Role ◽  
Finance Minister ◽  
Role Of The State ◽  
The Government ◽  
Almost All ◽  
Point Of Departure

The leading role of the state in nineteenth-century Russian industrialization is one of the most widely accepted notions in economic history. Thus state-sponsored industrialization, deeply rooted in the strength of the despotic state and the subservience of an undifferentiated peasantry and an insignificant middle class, began in earnest in the era of the Great Reforms, after the Crimean War had shocked the government out of its economic lethargy under Nicholas I and Finance Minister Kankrin. It continued unevenly thereafter until it crested in the burst of state-led growth in the 1890s. The “statist interpretation” of prerevolutionary Russian industrial development has been most notably expounded by Alexander Gerschenkron in a series of influential essays and by Theodore Von Laue in his biography of Sergei Witte. It thoroughly dominates non-Soviet scholarship and serves as the point of departure for almost all general investigations.

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