Nanocellulose as a new sustainable material for various applications: a review

Purpose: This paper presents a comprehensive review of nanocellulose and its application in several applications, including composites, biomedical, and food packaging fields. Design/methodology/approach: General explanations about cellulose and nanocellulose have been described. Different types of nanocellulose (cellulose nanofibers, cellulose nanocrystals, bacterial nanocellulose) as well as their isolation processes (mechanical process, chemical process) have been reviewed. Several surface modifications have been explained to improve the dispersion of nanocellulose in non-polar polymers. The possible utilization of nanocellulose in composites, biomedical, and food packaging fields have also been analysed. Findings: This review presents three application fields at once, namely composites, biomedical, and food packaging fields. In the composite field, nanocellulose can be used as a reinforcing agent which increases the mehcnical properties such as tensile strength and toughness, and thermal stability of the final composites. In the biomedical field, nanocellulose is reinforced into hydrogel or composites which will be produced as tissue scaffolding, wound dressing, etc. It is found that the addition of nanocellulose can extend and control the drug release. While in the packaging field, nanocellulose is added into a biopolymer to improve the barrier properties and decrease the water and oxygen vapor transmission rates. Research limitations/implications: Nanocellulose has a hydrophilic nature, thus making it agglomerated and difficult to disperse in most non-polar polymers. Therefore, certain surface modification of nanocellulose are required prior to the preparation of composites or hydrogels.Practical implications: Further research regarding the toxicity of nanocellulose needs to be investigated, especially when applying it in the biomedical and food packaging fields. Originality/value: This review presents three application fields at once, namely composites, biomedical, and food packaging fields.

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Effects of Preparation Method on the Physicochemical Properties of Cationic Nanocellulose and Starch Nanocomposites

Nanomaterials ◽

10.3390/nano9121702 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 9 (12) ◽

pp. 1702 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Lina Han ◽

Wentao Wang ◽

Rui Zhang ◽

Haizhou Dong ◽

Jingyuan Liu ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Food Packaging ◽

Preparation Method ◽

Barrier Properties ◽

Decomposition Temperature ◽

Suspension Stability ◽

Particle Sizes ◽

Aspect Ratios ◽

Reinforcing Agent ◽

Lower Maximum ◽

Starch Films

Nanocellulose (NC) has attracted attention in recent years for the advantages offered by its unique characteristics. In this study, the effects of the preparation method on the properties of starch films were investigated by preparing NC from cationic-modified microcrystalline cellulose (MD-MCC) using three methods: Acid hydrolysis (AH), high-pressure homogenization (HH), and high-intensity ultrasonication (US). When MD-MCC was used as the starting material, the yield of NC dramatically increased compared to the NC yield obtained from unmodified MCC and the increased zeta potential improved its suspension stability in water. The NC prepared by the different methods had a range of particle sizes and exhibited needle-like structures with high aspect ratios. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra indicated that trimethyl quaternary ammonium salt groups were introduced to the cellulose backbone during etherification. AH-NC had a much lower maximum decomposition temperature (Tmax) than HH-NC or US-NC. The starch/HH-NC film exhibited the best water vapor barrier properties because the HH-NC particles were well-dispersed in the starch matrix, as demonstrated by the surface morphology of the film. Our results suggest that cationic NC is a promising reinforcing agent for the development of starch-based biodegradable food-packaging materials.

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Transparent and Robust All-Cellulose Nanocomposite Packaging Materials Prepared in a Mixture of Trifluoroacetic Acid and Trifluoroacetic Anhydride

Nanomaterials ◽

10.3390/nano9030368 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 9 (3) ◽

pp. 368 ◽

Cited By ~ 6

Author(s):

Susana Guzman-Puyol ◽

Luca Ceseracciu ◽

Giacomo Tedeschi ◽

Sergio Marras ◽

Alice Scarpellini ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Trifluoroacetic Acid ◽

Food Packaging ◽

Cellulose Nanofibers ◽

Barrier Properties ◽

Trifluoroacetic Anhydride ◽

Packaging Films ◽

Force Microscopy ◽

Water Barrier ◽

Cellulose Composites ◽

Food Packaging Films

All-cellulose composites with a potential application as food packaging films were prepared by dissolving microcrystalline cellulose in a mixture of trifluoroacetic acid and trifluoroacetic anhydride, adding cellulose nanofibers, and evaporating the solvents. First, the effect of the solvents on the morphology, structure, and thermal properties of the nanofibers was evaluated by atomic force microscopy (AFM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), respectively. An important reduction in the crystallinity was observed. Then, the optical, morphological, mechanical, and water barrier properties of the nanocomposites were determined. In general, the final properties of the composites depended on the nanocellulose content. Thus, although the transparency decreased with the amount of cellulose nanofibers due to increased light scattering, normalized transmittance values were higher than 80% in all the cases. On the other hand, the best mechanical properties were achieved for concentrations of nanofibers between 5 and 9 wt.%. At higher concentrations, the cellulose nanofibers aggregated and/or folded, decreasing the mechanical parameters as confirmed analytically by modeling of the composite Young’s modulus. Finally, regarding the water barrier properties, water uptake was not affected by the presence of cellulose nanofibers while water permeability was reduced because of the higher tortuosity induced by the nanocelluloses. In view of such properties, these materials are suggested as food packaging films.

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Physical, Mechanical, and Water Vapor Barrier Properties of Starch/Cellulose Nanofiber/Thymol Bionanocomposite Films

Polymers ◽

10.3390/polym13234060 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 13 (23) ◽

pp. 4060

Author(s):

Siti Hajar Othman ◽

Bilguisse Mamadou Wane ◽

Norhazirah Nordin ◽

Noor Zafira Noor Hasnan ◽

Rosnita A. Talib ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Water Vapor ◽

Food Packaging ◽

Cellulose Nanofibers ◽

Antibacterial Properties ◽

Barrier Properties ◽

Packaging Materials ◽

Water Vapor Barrier ◽

Food Packaging Materials ◽

Bionanocomposite Films ◽

Starch Films

The application of starch films, such as food packaging materials, has been restricted due to poor mechanical and barrier properties. However, the addition of a reinforcing agent, cellulose nanofibers (CNF) and also thymol, into the films, may improve the properties of films. This work investigates the effects of incorporating different concentrations of thymol (3, 5, 7, and 10 wt.%) on physical, mechanical, water vapor barrier, and antibacterial properties of corn starch films, containing 1.5 wt.% CNF produced using the solvent casting method. The addition of thymol does not significantly affect the color and opacity of the films. It is found that the tensile strength and Young’s modulus of the films decreases from 10.6 to 6.3 MPa and from 436.9 to 209.8 MPa, respectively, and the elongation at break increased from 110.6% to 123.5% with the incorporation of 10 wt.% thymol into the films. Furthermore, the addition of thymol at higher concentrations (7 and 10 wt.%) improved the water vapor barrier of the films by approximately 60.0%, from 4.98 × 10—9 to 2.01 × 10—9 g/d.m.Pa. Starch/CNF/thymol bionanocomposite films are also found to exhibit antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli. In conclusion, the produced starch/CNF/thymol bionanocomposite films have the potential to be used as antibacterial food packaging materials.

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Mechanically Reinforced, Flexible, Hydrophobic and UV Impermeable Starch-Cellulose Nanofibers (CNF)-Lignin Composites with Good Barrier and Thermal Properties

Polymers ◽

10.3390/polym13244346 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 13 (24) ◽

pp. 4346

Author(s):

Yadong Zhao ◽

Christofer Troedsson ◽

Jean-Marie Bouquet ◽

Eric M. Thompson ◽

Bin Zheng ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Thermal Stability ◽

Food Packaging ◽

Cellulose Nanofibers ◽

Composite Films ◽

Barrier Properties ◽

Gas Barrier ◽

Good Thermal Stability ◽

Flexible Films ◽

Functional Additive ◽

The Matrix

Bio-based composite films have been widely studied as potential substitutes for conventional plastics in food packaging. The aim of this study was to develop multifunctional composite films by introducing cellulose nanofibers (CNF) and lignin into starch-based films. Instead of costly and complicated chemical modification or covalent coupling, this study optimized the performance of the composite films by simply tuning the formulation. We found that starch films were mechanically reinforced by CNF, with lignin dispersing as nanoparticles embedded in the matrix. The newly built-up hydrogen bonding between these three components improves the integration of the films, while the introduction of CNF and lignin improved the thermal stability of the starch-based films. Lignin, as a functional additive, improved hydrophobicity and blocked UV transmission. The inherent barrier property of CNF and the dense starch matrix provided the composite films with good gas barrier properties. The prepared flexible films were optically transparent, and exhibited UV blocking ability, good oxygen-barrier properties, high hydrophobicity, appreciable mechanical strength and good thermal stability. These characteristics indicate potential utilization as a green alternative to synthetic plastics especially for food packaging applications.

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Bio-nanocomposites for food packaging applications: effect of cellulose nanofibers on morphological, mechanical, optical and barrier properties

Polymer International ◽

10.1002/pi.5518 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 67 (4) ◽

pp. 386-392 ◽

Cited By ~ 18

Author(s):

Raissa Alvarenga Carvalho ◽

Taline Amorim Santos ◽

Viviane Machado de Azevedo ◽

Pedro Henrique Campelo Felix ◽

Marali Vilela Dias ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Food Packaging ◽

Cellulose Nanofibers ◽

Barrier Properties

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Biocomposites Based on Agar and Cellulose Nanofibers Prepared from Carrot Slag

Key Engineering Materials ◽

10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.889.32 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 889 ◽

pp. 32-37

Author(s):

Yeng Fong Shih ◽

Wei Sheng Su

Keyword(s):

Tensile Strength ◽

Composite Film ◽

Food Packaging ◽

Fourier Transforms ◽

Cellulose Nanofibers ◽

Biodegradable Composite ◽

Biocomposite Films ◽

Transmission Electron ◽

Reinforcing Agent ◽

Ft Ir

In this study, the effect of cellulose nanofibers (CNF) prepared from carrot slag on the properties of agar biocomposite films is investigated. The composite film was characterized by ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis), tensile test, fourier transforms infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy and Transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The transmittance, mechanical properties and chemical structure of the composite film containing different CNF content (0.1, 0.3 and 0.5 phr based on agar) were studied. The UV-Vis showed that the transmittance of the film was decreased with increasing content of CNF. The FT-IR spectrum showed that the generation of hydrogen bonds leads to good interface bonding between Agar and CNF. Moreover, the performance of the bionanocomposite was improved by the addition of CNF. The composite containing 0.3 phr CNF results in a maximum tensile strength of 25.97 MPa. However, the tensile strength of the 0.5 phr CNF containing one is reduced to 24.42 MPa due to the agglomeration of CNF. The TEM shows that the diameter of CNF is 2.5 nm and the length is 18.20 nm. The usage of CNF obtained from carrot slag can not only recycle the waste from food industry, but also can be used as a reinforcing agent for preparing biodegradable composite film. It has potential uses in the development of biodegradable food packaging materials and biomedical applications.

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Cellulose Nanofibers from Olive Tree Pruning as Food Packaging Additive of a Biodegradable Film

Foods ◽

10.3390/foods10071584 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 10 (7) ◽

pp. 1584

Author(s):

Mónica Sánchez-Gutiérrez ◽

Isabel Bascón-Villegas ◽

Eduardo Espinosa ◽

Elena Carrasco ◽

Fernando Pérez-Rodríguez ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Thermal Stability ◽

Food Packaging ◽

Cellulose Nanofibers ◽

Antioxidant Properties ◽

Water Vapor Permeability ◽

Olive Tree ◽

Barrier Properties ◽

Vapor Permeability ◽

Alternative Material ◽

Tree Pruning

A biodegradable packaging film containing cellulose nanofibers from olive tree pruning, a by-product of olives production, was obtained using a solvent casting method. Nanocellulose was added to polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) to enhance the technological properties of the composite film as food packaging material. Nanocellulose was obtained from unbleached and bleached pulp through a mechanical and TEMPO pretreatment. Crystalline and chemical structure, surface microstructure, UV and gas barrier, optical, mechanical and antioxidant properties, as well as thermal stability were evaluated. Regarding optical properties, the UV barrier was increased from 6% for the pure PVA film to 50% and 24% for unbleached and bleached nanocellulose, respectively. The antioxidant capacity increased significantly in unbleached mechanical nanocellulose-films (5.3%) compared to pure PVA film (1.7%). In terms of mechanical properties, the tensile strength of the 5% unbleached mechanical nanocellulose films was significantly improved compared to the pure PVA film. Similarly, the 5% nanocellulose films had increased the thermal stability and improved barrier properties, reducing water vapor permeability by 38–59% and presenting an oxygen barrier comparable to aluminum layer and plastic films. Our results support the use of the developed films as a green alternative material for food packaging.

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Low-Density Polyethylene Films Carrying ferula asafoetida Extract for Active Food Packaging: Thermal, Mechanical, Optical, Barrier, and Antifungal Properties

Advances in Polymer Technology ◽

10.1155/2020/4098472 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 2020 ◽

pp. 1-15

Author(s):

Razieh Niazmand ◽

Bibi Marzieh Razavizadeh ◽

Farzaneh Sabbagh

Keyword(s):

Polymer Matrix ◽

Food Packaging ◽

Barrier Properties ◽

Low Density Polyethylene ◽

Low Density ◽

Optical Barrier ◽

Leaf Extracts ◽

Polyethylene Films ◽

Active Food Packaging ◽

Ferula Asafoetida

The physical, thermal, mechanical, optical, microstructural, and barrier properties of low-density polyethylene films (LDPE) containing ferula asafoetida leaf and gum extracts were investigated. Results showed a reduction in elasticity and tensile strength with increasing extract concentration in the polymer matrix. The melting temperature and enthalpy increased with increasing concentration of extracts. The films containing extracts had lower L∗ and a∗ and higher b∗ indices. The films containing leaf extract had more barrier potential to UV than the gum extracts. The oxygen permeability in films containing 5% of leaf and gum extracts increased by 2.3 and 2.1 times, respectively. The morphology of the active films was similar to bubble swollen islands, which was more pronounced at higher concentrations of gum and leaf extracts. FTIR results confirmed some chemical interactions of ferula extracts with the polymer matrix. At the end of day 14th, the growth rate of Aspergillus niger and Saccharomyces cerevisea in the presence of the PE-Gum-5 reduced more than PE-Leaf-5 (3.7 and 2.4 logarithmic cycles, respectively) compared to the first day. Our findings showed that active LDPE films have desire thermo-mechanical and barrier properties for food packaging.

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Tannic-Acid-Cross-Linked and TiO2-Nanoparticle-Reinforced Chitosan-Based Nanocomposite Film

Polymers ◽

10.3390/polym13020228 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 13 (2) ◽

pp. 228

Author(s):

Swarup Roy ◽

Lindong Zhai ◽

Hyun Chan Kim ◽

Duc Hoa Pham ◽

Hussein Alrobei ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Mechanical Properties ◽

Tannic Acid ◽

Nanocomposite Film ◽

Food Packaging ◽

Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles ◽

Casting Technique ◽

Active Food Packaging ◽

Reinforcing Agent ◽

Solution Casting Technique ◽

Cross Linker

A chitosan-based nanocomposite film with tannic acid (TA) as a cross-linker and titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2) as a reinforcing agent was developed with a solution casting technique. TA and TiO2 are biocompatible with chitosan, and this paper studied the synergistic effect of the cross-linker and the reinforcing agent. The addition of TA enhanced the ultraviolet blocking and mechanical properties of the chitosan-based nanocomposite film. The reinforcement of TiO2 in chitosan/TA further improved the nanocomposite film’s mechanical properties compared to the neat chitosan or chitosan/TA film. The thermal stability of the chitosan-based nanocomposite film was slightly enhanced, whereas the swelling ratio decreased. Interestingly, its water vapor barrier property was also significantly increased. The developed chitosan-based nanocomposite film showed potent antioxidant activity, and it is promising for active food packaging.

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Evolution of biobased and nanotechnology packaging – a review

Nordic Pulp & Paper Research Journal ◽

10.1515/npprj-2020-0042 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 35 (4) ◽

pp. 491-515

Author(s):

Tom Lindström ◽

Folke Österberg

Keyword(s):

Biodegradable Polymers ◽

Food Packaging ◽

Environmental Issues ◽

Barrier Properties ◽

Environmental Problems ◽

Layer By Layer ◽

Polyelectrolyte Complexes ◽

Life Issues ◽

Technological Developments ◽

End Of Life Issues

AbstractThis review deals with the evolution of bio-based packaging and the emergence of various nanotechnologies for primary food packaging. The end-of life issues of packaging is discussed and particularly the environmental problems associated with microplastics in the marine environment, which serve as a vector for the assimilation of persistent organic pollutants in the oceans and are transported into the food chain via marine and wild life. The use of biodegradable polymers has been a primary route to alleviate these environmental problems, but for various reasons the market has not developed at a sufficient pace that would cope with the mentioned environmental issues. Currently, the biodegradable plastics only constitute a small fraction of the fossil-based plastic market. Fossil-based plastics are, however, indispensable for food safety and minimization of food waste, and are not only cheap, but has generally more suitable mechanical and barrier properties compared to biodegradable polymers. More recently, various nanotechnologies such as the use of nanoclays, nanocellulose, layer-by-layer technologies and polyelectrolyte complexes have emerged as viable technologies to make oxygen and water vapor barriers suitable for food packaging. These technological developments are highlighted as well as issues like biodegradation, recycling, legislation issues and safety and toxicity of these nanotechnologies.

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