Sour Environmental Severity for HIC Susceptibility

The severity of sour environments has been determined in accordance with the European Federation of Corrosion 16 and NACE MR0175/ISO 15156-2:2015 standards for carbon and low-alloy steels, based on the experimental results of sulfide stress cracking (SSC). However, the severity map obtained from SSC test results cannot be applicable to the hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC) susceptibility. In this study, the hydrogen permeability and crack area ratio (CAR) of HIC under various pH and H2S partial pressures (pH2S) were measured to establish the link between the sour environmental severity and HIC susceptibility using grades X65 to X80 linepipe steels. In addition, the hydrogen concentration at the location of the HIC was calculated by the finite element analysis. The results showed that the sour environmental severity map obtained from hydrogen permeation tests changes with time, because the hydrogen permeability reached maximum values in the early stage and steady-state values in the later stage. Then, the HIC susceptibility did not correspond to the maximum permeability, but to the steady-state hydrogen permeability. In addition, the hydrogen content at the location of the HIC did not correspond to the maximum hydrogen permeability but corresponded to the steady-state hydrogen permeability, because HIC occurred in the center segregation part and the hydrogen atoms required a certain time to diffuse from the metal surface to the mid-thickness. These results suggest that the HIC susceptibility is dominated by the severity map obtained from the steady-state hydrogen permeability.

MICRO-CRACK ANALYSIS IN THE STUDY OF FATIGUE FRACTURE IN THE HAZ IN THE HIGH YIELD STRENGTH MICRO-ALLOYED STEELS

Various applications have been described in the literature for the High-Strength and Low-Alloy steels (HSLA) industry, analysing their use both in industrial and marine equipment and machines and in structures that require appropriate resilience values and toughness at low temperatures. For successful operation under conditions as large structures under extreme service conditions, it is essential to ensure the proper toughness both in base metal (USITEN 355 0.5 Ni Grade I steel) and in the heat-affected area of the weld. (ZAC). This research carries out Crack Tip Opening Displacement (CTOD) tests, showing, in this article, the first part of the test corresponding to fatigue pre-cracking and a summary table of the results of fracture toughness, to guarantee that, under the conditions which exist in welding, both the fatigue fracture values and the fracture toughness are acceptable by the applicable standards. Keywords: SMAW, weld line, CTOD, stress intensity factor, input heat energy, crack growth rate, fatigue fracture, fracture toughness

Energy power parameter effect of hot rolling on the formation of the structure and properties of low-alloy steels

The temperature and degree of hot deformation for steel 10HFTBch have been determined. This made it possible to ensure an increase in the mechanical properties of this steel, namely, the ultimate strength up to 540–560 MPa, as well as the relative elongation up to 25–29 %. As a result, it became possible to increase the service life of wheels with increased carrying capacity. This, in turn, will make it possible to increase the load of the transported cargo by motor vehicles several times. The mechanism of the influence of the energy-power parameters of rolling on the formation of the macro- and microstructure of a two-phase steel in the process of hot deformation is disclosed. The applied scheme provided an increase in the homogeneity of the structure of the developed steel, which saved the central part of the rolled section from overheating. It has been established that a decrease in the temperature of the end of deformation leads to a decrease in the size of the recrystallized austenite grain, and, consequently, to a refinement of the ferrite grain. Also an important factor in preventing the growth of ferrite grains in the upper part of the ferritic region is the abolition of cooling of the steel in coils. The recommended mode for multicomponent alloy steel 10HFTBch is as follows: the temperature of the end of rolling is 850 °C, the beginning of accelerated cooling is 750 °C, and the temperature of strip coiling into a coil is 600 °C. The basis for ensuring the increased strength of two-phase steels is the ratio and distribution of structural fractions – ferrite (initial and precipitated from austenite), as well as martensite. When hardened by such traditional "martensite formations" as manganese, the ability to control properties is limited. This is reflected in a narrow range of variation in the strength and ductility of the developed steel. The optimal combination of strength characteristics of plastic properties reduces the metal consumption of the product by 15–25 %.

Some advanced welding technologies applied for repair welding in power plants

Steels are subjected to many time-dependent degradation mechanisms when they are applied in electric power plants. They are exposed to high temperatures, multi-axial stresses, creep, fatigue, corrosion, and abrasion during such services. Used under these threatening conditions, those materials could develop various damages or failures or even form cracks. Therefore, it is desirable to prevent in-service failures, improve reliability, and extend the plant's operational life. The efficiency of the electric power plant, among other processes, depends on effective maintenance. The paper presents the evaluation of advanced procedures and knowledge in the field of steel repair welding in the maintenance of the power plants. Most repair welding of low alloy steels requires high-temperature post-weld heat treatment (PWHT), but in certain repairs, however, this is not always possible. Application of the nickel-based filler metal could also be an alternative to performing post-weld heat treatment (PWHT). The repair work expenses could be reduced if the repair is performed on-site. The novel developed repair welding procedures presented in this paper were applied for emergency weld repairing of the steel pipelines in thermal power plant, repairing without disassembling the working wheel of the coal mill in thermal power plant and "on-site" repairing turbine shaft of the hydropower plant. For all the presented repair welding procedures, weldability analysis based on the analytical equations and technological ''CTS'' and ''Y'' tests to determine the sensitivity to cold and hot crack forming were applied. Tensile tests, absorbed energies tests, banding tests, and hardness measurements were performed on trial joints, which were used to develop and verify the applied methodologies. Presented advanced weld repair technologies enable repairs for a shorter time and at lower costs compared to conventional procedures.

Effect of Ce Content on Microstructure-Toughness Relationship in the Simulated Coarse-Grained Heat-Affected Zone of High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels

The study aimed to identify a moderate degree of Ce addition to improve the toughness in the simulated coarse-grained heat-affected zone (CGHAZ) of high-strength low-alloy steels, based on the effect of the Ce content on particle characteristics, microstructure and impact toughness. Three steels with 0.012 wt.%, 0.050 wt.% and 0.086 wt.% Ce content were subjected to 100 kJ/cm heat input in their thermal welding cycles. The particles and microstructures in the simulated CGHAZ of each steel were characterized and the impact-absorbance energy levels were measured at −20 °C. The results indicated that Ce2O2S inclusion compounds were gradually modified to CexSy-CeP and CeP with the increasing of the Ce content. A higher fraction of acicular ferrite was formed in the 0.012 wt.%-Ce-treated steel due to the lower mismatch between Ce2O2S and α-Fe. Furthermore, a lower fraction of M-A constituent was obtained in the 0.012 wt.%-Ce-treated steel. As a result, superior toughness and a typical amount of ductile fracture were detected in the simulated CGHAZ of the 0.012 wt.%-Ce-treated steel. Compared with the 0.012 wt.%-Ce-treated steel, a smaller prior austenite grain was observed in the 0.086 wt.%-Ce-treated steel because of the segregation of CeP at the grain boundary. However, the larger size and density of CeP led to poor toughness in the CGHAZ of the 0.086 wt.%-Ce-treated steel.

Hydrogen stress cracking resistance and hydrogen transport properties of ASTM A508 grade 4N

Low alloy steels combine relatively low cost with exceptional mechanical properties, making them commonplace in oil and gas equipment. However, their strength and hardness are restricted for sour environments to prevent different forms of hydrogen embrittlement. Materials used in sour services are regulated by the ISO 15156-2 standard, which imposes a maximum hardness of 250 HV (22 HRC) and allows up to 1.0 wt% Ni additions due to hydrogen embrittlement concerns. Low alloy steels that exceed the ISO 15156-2 limit have to be qualified for service, lowering their commercial appeal. As a result, high-performing, usually high-nickel, low alloy steels used successfully in other industries are rarely considered for sour service. In this work, the hydrogen stress cracking resistance of the high-nickel (3.41 wt%), quenched and tempered, nuclear-grade ASTM A508 Gr.4N low alloy steel was investigated using slow strain rate testing as a function of applied cathodic potential. Results showed that the yield strength and ultimate tensile strength were unaffected by hydrogen, even at a high negative potential of -2.00 V<sub>Ag/AgCl</sub>. Hydrogen embrittlement effects were observed once the material started necking, manifested by a loss in ductility with increasing applied cathodic potentials. Indeed, A508 Gr.4N was less affected by hydrogen at high cathodic potentials than a low-strength (yield strength = 340 MPa) ferritic-pearlitic low alloy steel of similar nickel content. Additionally, hydrogen diffusivity was measured using the hydrogen permeation test. The calculated hydrogen diffusion coefficient of the ASTM A508 Gr.4N was two orders of magnitude smaller when compared to that of ferritic-pearlitic steels. Hydrogen embrittlement and diffusion results were linked to the microstructure features. The microstructure consisted in a bainitic/martensitic matrix with the presence of Cr<sub>23</sub>C<sub>6</sub> carbides as well as Mo and V-rich precipitates, which might have played a role in retarding hydrogen diffusion, kept responsible for the improved HE resistance.

Fractographic Analysis of Mechanical Properties of Microalloyed Steel

Extensive efforts made over the past few decades have enhanced the rising performance of High-Strength Low-Alloy steels. Use of thermomechanical processing was considered for this research. However, the desired mechanical properties are obtained by formulating alloys. Further, to enhance mechanical properties, impact energy, the subsequent quenching and tempering are used. The metallurgical transformation caused by deformation followed by cooling and/or heat treatment has added influences on steels’ mechanical properties. The rational decrease in impact energy value is complex.