Phytochemical constituents and antibacterial activities of indigenous chewing stick (Anogeissus leiocarpus) stem

The stems from Anogeissus leiocarpus are commonly used as chewing sticks in Northern Nigeria. If properly used, the chewing sticks have proven to be effective in removing dental plaque due to mechanical cleaning and enhanced salivation. Chewing sticks from other plants have been shown to display antimicrobial activities against a broad spectrum of microorganisms. However, there is limited information available in Northern Nigeria on the chemical composition, antimicrobial properties and the ability of the plants under study to prevent bacterial adhesion to tooth surface. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to ascertain the phytochemical and antibacterial properties of Anogeissus leiocarpus and correlate the results obtained to their ethnomedicinal uses as chewing sticks. Powdered stem was exhaustively extracted using methanol at room temperature for 72 hours. Antibacterial activities of the methanol extract was assessed using the agar well diffusion methods against the oral pathogens, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus salivarius, Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus mutans and Streptococcus sanguinis. Acute toxicity study was achieved using Lorke method. Phytochemicals which include flavonoid, steroid, triterpenes, alkaloids, tannins, carbohydrate, glycoside, phenols were detected in the extracts while anthraquinones was absent. The antibacterial results revealed that, the methanol extract had promising antibacterial activity. S. aureuswas found to be the most susceptible bacteria at 500mg/ml with inhibition of 22 mm, Streptococcus salivarius, Streptococcus pyogenes and Streptococcus sanguinis were inhibited at 16 mm while Streptococcus mutans showed inhibition of 14 mm. The extract have MIC and MBC of 31.25 mg/ml and 62.5 mg/ml respectively against all the tested clinical isolates. The LD50 of Anogeissus leiocarpus was found to be greater than 5000 mg/kg and could be considered safe for consumption.

Evaluation of the Antidiarrheal and Antioxidant Effects of Some Chewing Sticks Commonly Used for Oral Hygiene in Ghana

Microbial etiology of diarrhea is a significant cause of death, especially in children in developing countries. The presence of microbes that are resistant to current treatment options for diarrhea suggests the need to find newer antimicrobial agents for treatment. Therefore, this study focused on investigating the antimicrobial effect of some Ghanaian chewing sticks commonly used for oral hygiene, Azadirachta indica, Garcinia afzelii, and Garcinia kola, against selected diarrhea-causing organisms. From the stem and bark of each plant, 70% methanolic extract was experimented on Salmonella and Shigella species, namely, Shigella sonnei, Shigella flexeneri, Salmonella typhinirium enterica, Salmonella typhi attenuated, and Klebsiella oxytoca for microbial susceptibility using the agar well diffusion method. Additionally, the antioxidant profile of the methanolic extracts were investigated using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical, 2,2’-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulphonic) acid (ABTS) scavenging activities, and ferric-reducing antioxidant potential (FRAP) assays, while the total polyphenolic content was determined using the Folin–Ciocalteau reagent. G. afzelii and A. indica stem demonstrated the highest antimicrobial effect, inhibiting the growth of all test organisms. Additionally, the extracts demonstrated high antioxidant potential and were found to possess significant amounts of phenolic compounds. Therefore, methanolic extracts of G. afzelii and A. indica stem are promising candidates for the identification of safe novel compounds to mitigate diarrheal diseases.

Metal contents in traditional chewing sticks commonly used in Ethiopia: A comparative analysis

African toothbrush sticks have been used for centuries for the maintenance of oral hygiene. This is especially true in developing countries where economics, customs, religion and the availability of oral hygiene tools play a role in their continued use. Chewing sticks are used by the majority of the population in Ethiopia. The aim this study was to determine the levels of essential and non-essential metals in chewing sticks from three plants (Salix subserrata, Sida cuneifolia and Clausena anisata) in samples collected from three selected areas (Muger, Sendafa and Holleta) of Ethiopia. Samples were wet digested with mixture of HNO3 and HClO4 at optimized temperature and time. The levels of metals were determined by microwave plasma-atomic absorption spectrometry. The range of mean concentrations of the metals (mg/kg) in the S. subserrata, S. cunnefolia, and C. anisata samples were in the order of Ca (14150-25914) > Fe (514-1191) > Al (103-1263) > Zn (152-196) > Mg (46-102) > Ni (4-160) > Mn (25-78) > Cu (13-20) > Cr (7-8). The accuracy of the optimized procedure was evaluated by analyzing the digest of the spiked samples with standard solution and the percentage recoveries varied from 92% to 104%. The toxic metals Cd and Pb in the plant samples were not detected. Thus, people using “chewing stick” from studied plants are free from the risks of Cd and Pb toxicity.

Antibacterial Activity of Different Toothpastes and Chewing Sticks on Selected Bacteria Isolated from the Oral Cavity

The present study assessed the antibacterial efficacy of different toothpastes and chewing sticks purchased from a local market in Yenagoa, on selected bacteria isolated from the oral cavity. 100 oral specimens were collected from the primary school pupils of Community Primary School Otuoke, Bayelsa State. The specimens were analyzed by culture, biochemical test and agar well diffusion. Phytochemical and antibacterial properties of ethanol, and aqueous extracts of the chewing sticks were investigated in this study. The bacterial isolates were Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus mutans and Serratia marcescens. The highest bacterial isolate seen was E. coli, 27 (45%) while the lowest was Serratia marcescens, 2 (3.3%). The highest occurring bacterial isolates based on sex was seen in females with 32 (53.5%) while the least in male with 28 (46.7%). The age group with the highest bacterial isolate was 3–6years with 36 (60%) while the least was 11–14yaers with 8 (13.3%). Preliminary phytochemical screening of the chewing stick extracts revealed the presence of saponins, alkaloids and terpenes in Salvadora persica, and saponins, terpenes and glycosides were present in Massularia acuminata. The toothpastes (Close up and Oral-B) showed antibacterial activity (p<0.05) against all the bacterial isolates; however, no significant activity was observed for Close up on E. coli. The ethanol extracts of both chewing sticks (M. acuminata and S. persica) showed antibacterial activity (p<0.05) against the bacterial isolates than the aqueous extracts. However, the aqueous extracts of S. persica were shown to be effective against E. coli and S. mutans, with inhibition zones of 13.5mm at 62.5mg/ml concentration and 4.5mm at 125mg/ml concentration respectively; this showed significant difference (p<0.05), whereas no significant zone of inhibition was observed for M. acuminata. In comparison, this study showed Oral-B proved more effective than Close up, while for the chewing sticks, S. persica exhibited the greater antibacterial activity. Also, the toothpastes showed more effective antibacterial properties than the chewing sticks.

Dog Stick Chewing: An Overlooked Instance of Tool Use?

Tool use is a central topic in research on cognitive evolution and behavioral ecology in non-human animals. Originally thought to be a uniquely human phenomenon, many other species have been observed making and using tools for a variety of purposes, starting with Goodall’s (1964) groundbreaking work with chimpanzees in Gombe. Despite the frequent attention and great research interest in animal tool use, and ubiquity of the behavior, we argue here that chewing sticks by dogs (and other animals) should be included as a case of tool use. We discuss alternate possible explanations and then propose several testable predictions regarding this hypothesis. We suggest that tool use may be more common than is often assumed and that many cases of animal tool use may be overlooked.