Response Systems, Antagonistic Responses, and the Behavioral Repertoire

While response systems are often mentioned in the behavioral and physiological literature, an explicit discussion of what response systems are is lacking. Here we argue that response systems can be understood as an interaction between anatomically constrained behavioral topographies occasioned by currently present stimuli and a history of reinforcement. “New” response systems can develop during the lifetime as the organism gains instrumental control of new fine-grained topographies. Within this framework, antagonistic responses compete within each response system based on environmental stimulation, and competition is resolved at the striatum-thalamo-cortical loops level. While response systems can be by definition independent from one another, separate systems are often recruited at the same time to engage in complex responses, which themselves may be selected by reinforcement as functional units.

Floatation Therapy for Physical Conditions

The clinical effectiveness of floatation therapy for the treatment of physical conditions remains uncertain. One randomized controlled trial was identified that evaluated floatation-restricted environmental stimulation therapy (REST) compared with placebo and waitlist control groups for the treatment of patients with chronic pain. The trial reported no significant differences between the 3 treatment groups on any of the outcomes measured including those related to pain, medication use, quality of life, sleep impairment, anxiety, or depression. One guideline was identified that states that there is insufficient evidence to recommend for or against the use of sensory deprivation tanks in patients with symptoms attributed to mild traumatic brain injury. The cost-effectiveness of floatation therapy for the treatment of physical condition is unknown as no relevant economic evaluations were identified.

Increase in Low-Frequency Oscillations in fNIRS as Cerebral Response to Auditory Stimulation with Familiar Music

Recognition of typical patterns of brain response to external stimuli using near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) may become a gateway to detecting covert consciousness in clinically unresponsive patients. This is the first fNIRS study on the cortical hemodynamic response to favorite music using a frequency domain approach. The aim of this study was to identify a possible marker of cognitive response in healthy subjects by investigating variations in the oscillatory signal of fNIRS in the spectral regions of low-frequency (LFO) and very-low-frequency oscillations (VLFO). The experiment consisted of two periods of exposure to preferred music, preceded and followed by a resting phase. Spectral power in the LFO region increased in all the subjects after the first exposure to music and decreased again in the subsequent resting phase. After the second music exposure, the increase in LFO spectral power was less distinct. Changes in LFO spectral power were more proGfirst music exposure and the repetition-related habituation effect strongly suggest a cerebral origin of the fNIRS signal. Recognition of typical patterns of brain response to specific environmental stimulation is a required step for the concrete validation of a fNIRS-based diagnostic tool.

Floatation Therapy for Mental Health Conditions

Limited evidence from 2 randomized controlled trials suggested that floatation with restricted environmental stimulation therapy may provide some potential benefits in reducing anxiety and improving many of the symptoms associated with anxiety, including muscle tension, blood pressure, difficulties in emotion regulation, sleep difficulties, and depression, in individuals with anxiety disorders. Both trials reported no serious adverse events or negative side effects associated with the floatation therapy. No evidence was found on the cost-effectiveness of floatation therapy for the treatment of mental health conditions. No evidence-based guidelines with recommendations regarding the use of floatation therapy for the treatment of mental health conditions were identified.

Validity of the Chinese Version of the Person-Environment Apathy Rating (PEAR-C) for Persons With Dementia

Apathy is a prevalent neurobehavioral symptom in dementia. Despite that environmental stimulation plays a key role in apathy, it is often overlooked in assessment. The Person-Environment Apathy Rating (PEAR) scale is currently the only validated apathy scale for persons with dementia that addresses environmental stimulation and is only available in English. This project translated the PEAR scale into Mandarin Chinese and evaluated its content validity. The PEAR scale includes two subscales: PEAR-Environment and PEAR-Apathy. Each subscale includes six items. The PEAR scale translation and validation were conducted through a four-step process. First, the PEAR scale was translated from English into Chinese by two bilingual PhD-prepared researchers. Second, the two Chinese versions of PEAR (PEAR-C) were back-translated into English by another two bilingual PhD-prepared researchers. Third, three content experts reviewed the two translated scales and reconciled a final PEAR-C scale. Finally, these three experts individually rated the PEAR-C and evaluated its content validity item-by-item in two aspects: 1) content equivalence: appropriateness to use this scale in Chinese cultural setting, and 2) semantic equivalence: the scale remains the same meaning after translation. The content validity index (CVI) was calculated to sum the ratings across experts. The CVI of content equivalence for all items was 1.0 for both subscales. The CVI of semantic equivalence was 0.98 for the PEAR-Environment and 0.97 for the PEAR-Apathy. The PEAR-C shows substantial content validity. Its reliability and construct validity need further evaluation. This scale is promising to assess apathy for individuals with dementia in the Chinese-speaking community.

Chemotherapy-Induced Cognitive Impairment and Hippocampal Neurogenesis: A Review of Physiological Mechanisms and Interventions

A wide range of cognitive deficits, including memory loss associated with hippocampal dysfunction, have been widely reported in cancer survivors who received chemotherapy. Changes in both white matter and gray matter volume have been observed following chemotherapy treatment, with reduced volume in the medial temporal lobe thought to be due in part to reductions in hippocampal neurogenesis. Pre-clinical rodent models confirm that common chemotherapeutic agents used to treat various forms of non-CNS cancers reduce rates of hippocampal neurogenesis and impair performance on hippocampally-mediated learning and memory tasks. We review the pre-clinical rodent literature to identify how various chemotherapeutic drugs affect hippocampal neurogenesis and induce cognitive impairment. We also review factors such as physical exercise and environmental stimulation that may protect against chemotherapy-induced neurogenic suppression and hippocampal neurotoxicity. Finally, we review pharmacological interventions that target the hippocampus and are designed to prevent or reduce the cognitive and neurotoxic side effects of chemotherapy.

Can Suboptimal Visual Environments Negatively Affect Children’s Cognitive Development?

There are indications that children born during the period of COVID-19 lockdown have cognitive development issues, without having been affected by the virus. We discuss here the idea that environmental deprivation—and, especially, the lack of appropriate visual stimulation—might be one source of these defects. This thought is in line with previous findings in children brought up in orphanages with poor environmental stimulation, hypothesizing that the minimalist architectural style prevailing for the last several decades is among the potential contributing factors. The process of eliminating organized complexity characteristic of organic forms may prove to be detrimental for humanity’s future, providing suboptimal environmental stimulation and opportunities for interaction during the critical stages of brain development.

Effects of Natural Environmental Stimulation Duration on Psychophysiological Recovery Benefits

The rapid pace of modern life, as well as chronic work and academic overloading, contribute to our society’s progressively increasing stress levels. Chronic stress can affect both physical and mental well-being. Numerous studies have confirmed that viewing a nature-based video presentation can reduce stress and result in attention recovery. However, the discourse has been primarily focused upon stimulation applied over a single duration, rather than over various durations. Therefore, the present study explored the effect of various viewing durations with regard to forest-related videos on stress reduction and attention recovery. Before the videos’ presentation, the participants’ stress and distraction levels were increased through stimulation. Data on stress, attention, and relaxation were collected through the implementation of the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory and an electroencephalogram instrument. Equal numbers from the 90 participants (i.e., 30) were assigned to watch a short, medium-length, or long video (5, 10, and 20 minutes in duration, respectively). The viewing of 20-minute forest-related videos significantly promoted stress reduction and physiological relaxation. The present findings advance the understanding of the relationship between viewing nature scenes duration and psychophysiological states; thus, they serve as a reference for future research on the natural-dose concept, as well as the development of relevant activities and courses.

Adrenal Gland Ultrasonographic Measurements and Plasma Hormone Concentrations in Clinically Healthy Newborn Thoroughbred and Standardbred Foals

Adrenal hormones, ACTH plasma concentrations and the ultrasonographic evaluation of the adrenal glands are considered complementary in clinical evaluations of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis function in several species. In dogs, age, size and weight have a significant effect on the ultrasonographic size of the adrenal glands. In neonatal foals, ultrasonographic evaluation and measurements of the adrenal glands have been demonstrated to be reliable; however, the effect of individual variables on ultrasonographic features has not been investigated, and the clinical usefulness of adrenal gland ultrasonography is still not known. The aims of this study were: (i) to provide and compare adrenal glands ultrasound measurements in healthy newborn Thoroughbred and Standardbred foals, and assess any effect of age, weight and sex on them; (ii) to assess and compare ACTH and steroid hormone concentrations in healthy neonatal foals of the two breeds. Venous blood samples and ultrasonographic images of the adrenal glands were collected from 10 healthy neonatal Thoroughbred and 10 healthy neonatal Standardbred foals. Ultrasonographic measurements of the adrenal glands were obtained and adrenocorticotropin (ACTH), cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), progesterone (P4) and aldosterone plasma concentrations were assessed. The ACTH/cortisol, ACTH/progesterone, ACTH/aldosterone, ACTH/DHEA and cortisol/DHEA ratios were calculated. A significant positive correlation was found between the height of the right adrenal gland and the foal’s weight; the width of the right and left adrenal gland and the medulla was significantly lower in Thoroughbreds than in Standardbreds. Cortisol and ACTH plasma concentrations were significantly higher and lower, respectively, in Thoroughbreds compared with Standardbreds. The cortisol/DHEA ratio was significantly higher in Thoroughbreds. This study provides reference ranges for neonatal Thoroughbred and Standardbred foals, and suggests the presence of breed-related differences in ultrasonographic adrenal gland measurements, plasmatic cortisol and ACTH concentrations. The higher cortisol/DHEA ratio detected in Thoroughbred foals could suggest a different response to environmental stimulation in the two breeds.