Fungi from Galleries of the Emerald Ash Borer Produce Cankers in Ash Trees

The emerald ash borer (EAB, Agrilus planipennis) is a devastating invasive pest that has killed millions of ash trees in the United States and Canada. EAB was discovered in the US in 2002 and first reported in Minnesota in 2009. It attacks ash trees that are native to the United States, including Fraxinus americana (white ash), F. nigra (black ash) and F. pennsylvanica (green ash). It also attacks Chionanthus virginicus (white fringe tree). Seven species of fungi isolated and identified only from EAB-infested trees in a previous study as having the potential to cause cankers were used to test their pathogenicity in F. americana (white ash). The fungi used were Cytospora pruinosa, Diplodia mutila, Diplodia seriata, Paraconiothyrium brasiliense, Phaeoacremonium minimum, Phaeoacremonium scolyti, and Thyronectria aurigera. Two field experiments that used F. americana used two inoculation methods: woodchip and agar plug inoculations. Results indicated that all of the fungi tested caused cankers in varying amounts, as compared to the controls. The largest cankers were caused by D. mutila (270 mm2), C. pruinosa (169 mm2), and D. seriata (69 mm2). All fungi except for T. aurigera were re-isolated and sequenced to confirm Kochs’ postulates. Canker-causing fungi found in association with EAB galleries have the potential to contribute to tree dieback and mortality.

CHARACTERIZATION OF MORTAR WITH PENNISETUM PURPUREUM ASHES AS CEMENT REPLACEMENT MATERIAL

In this study, the properties of mortar such as standard consistency, setting time, compressive strength, and water absorption rate were investigated. The cement was replaced with Pennisetum purpureum ashes (PPA) in different particle sizes and dosages. PPA was produced in greyish-white ash with total reactive oxides ranging from 37% to 41.1%. Pennisetum purpureum grass (PPG) was burned with a controlled process at 350 °C for the first 3 hours and 600 °C for another 3 hours at a heating rate of 10 °C/min. Then, PPG was ground in three different grinding durations (1, 3, and 6 hours) producing ashes with particle sizes of 10.58 µm, 10.25 µm, and 9.30 µm, respectively. The physical, chemical, and microstructural properties of PPA were evaluated through several tests; particle size analysis, X-ray diffraction analysis, loss on ignition, and chemical composition. Results indicated that PPA is more suitable for use as filling material as a substitute for cement than pozzolanic material as its reactive oxides are less than 50%. The 15% 6H-PPA at 28 days was found to be the optimum PPA replacement dosage and grinding time with cement as it achieved the highest strength and lower water absorption rate among all samples at 7 and 28 days. ABSTRAK: Kajian ini berkenaan sifat mortar seperti konsistensi standard, masa penyediaan, kekuatan menyeluruh, dan kadar penyerapan air. Simen ditukar dengan abu Pennisetum purpureum (PPA) dalam saiz partikel dan sukatan berbeza. PPA pula dihasilkan melalui habuk putih-kekelabuan dengan total reaktif oksida dengan julat purata 37% ke 41.1%. Rumput Pennisetum purpureum (PPG) dibakar dengan proses kawalan pada 350 °C selama 3 jam pertama dan 600 °C pada 3 jam berikutnya pada kadar pemanasan 10 °C/min. Kemudian, PPG dikisar dalam tiga tempoh kisaran berbeza (1, 3, dan 6 jam) menghasilkan abu dengan saiz partikel 10.58 µm, 10.25 µm, dan 9.30 µm, masing-masing. Fizikal, larutan kimia dan sifat struktur mikro PPA telah dikaji melalui pelbagai ujian; analisis saiz partikel, analisis pembelauan X-ray, kehilangan semasa penyalaan dan kandungan kimia. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan PPA adalah lebih sesuai digunakan sebagai material pengisian ganti kepada simen berbanding material pozzolanik kerana reaktif oksida adalah kurang daripada 50%. PPA adalah maksimum pada 15% 6H-PPA selama 28 hari, didapati lebih sesuai sebagai dos pengganti dan masa kisaran bersama simen, kerana kekuatan menyeluruh adalah paling tinggi dan kadar penyerapan air paling kurang antara semua sampel pada 7 dan 28 hari.

Predictive Models for Reforestation and Agricultural Reclamation: A Clearfield County, Pennsylvania Case Study

Natural resource scientists, concerned citizens, and government officials are interested in reconstructing disturbed environments for reforestation and agricultural productivity. We examined Clearfield County in Pennsylvania, USA, to develop a predictive model to reconstruct the landscape for seven agronomic crops (corn, corn silage, oats, alfalfa hay, red clover, bluegrass, and soybeans) and thirteen woody plants (white cedar, lilac, highbush cranberry, Amur maple, gray dogwood, peashrub, white spruce, white pine, red maple, red pine, jack pine, nannyberry, and white ash). A significant predictive model (p ≤ 0.001) was generated explaining 96.94% of the variance, with percent clay, bulk density, hydraulic conductivity, available water capacity, pH, percent organic matter, percent rock fragments, slope, topographic position, and electrical conductivity explored as main effect terms, plus squared terms, and first order interaction terms. The model is not over-specified and each predictor is significant (p ≤ 0.05). The modeling effort suggests that there are at least several clusters of vegetation preference dimensions based upon the terrain of the landscape. The model provides insight into how to reconstruct the disturbed environment for vegetation in the study area.

COLOUR VARIATIONS AND PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INDIGENOUS CHICKEN OF SOUTH WESTERN NIGERIA

The survey of indigenous chicken was carried out in 8 states comprising 119 local government of South Western Nigeria between October 1994 and May 1995 to evaluate colour variation relative to performance characteristics as selection criteria for development of improved indigenous poultry types for the Nigerian market. The colours recorded were those of the skin of the shank, the earlobe, the comb and the beak as well as that of the feathers. Significant differences were recorded for the feather colour effect on the liveweight, breast girth and breast length (P < 0.05). The shank and earlobe colours significantly affected the birds shank length, comb height, live weight ad backbone length (P < 0.05) with a highly significant (P < 0.05) earlobe effect on the breast girth Out of the 2032 birds analysed with complete records, 45.9% had mottled feather colour. The black white and brown colours were 17.4; 16.4; and 19.98% respectively while only 0.34% were red. Birds with yellow shanks were 35% while black, white/ash, white and piebald (yellow or white laced with black spots) were 23.3; 28.1; 10.8 and .8% represented 28.4 and 29.9% of the population whilst white earlobe was found in 53.4% of the birds. Though 45.9% of the birds had mottled feather colour, highest shank length of 8.04 and 8.05cm and liveweight of 1.37 and 1.41kg were black feather colours respectively. Eggs laid varied from 30.5 to 37.4 for the black and white feathered chicken with 25.65 to 30.98 hatched (i.e % hathability of 81.06 – 88.78%) by the mottled and white feathered chickens. A highly significant (P < 0.001) positive correlation of 0.982 between eggs laid and eggs hatched and correlations of 0.517 and 0.497 between these variables and those of comb height indicate their usefulness as selection criteria. Coupled with a high heritability estimate of 0.597 and 0.513 for liveweight, and the phenotypic colour variance of feather and shank, selection based on these colour variances could be effective in breed development.

Captures of Emerald Ash Borer (Agrilus planipennis) Adults in Post-Invasion White Ash Sites with Varying Amounts of Live Phloem

Emerald ash borer (EAB), (Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire), first identified in 2002 in southeast Michigan, has caused catastrophic ash (Fraxinus spp.) mortality in forests within the core of the invasion and has spread to 35 states and five Canadian provinces. Little is known about persistence and densities of EAB populations in post-invasion sites after most ash trees have died. We monitored EAB populations from 2014 to 2016 using double decker (DD) traps set in the midst of white ash (F. americana) trees in 30 post-invasion sites in southeast and south-central Michigan. Two DD traps were deployed at each site. One trap had a dark green upper prism and light purple lower prism, both baited with cis-3-hexenol lures. The other had two dark purple prisms baited with cis-3-hexenol on the upper prism and Manuka oil on the lower prism. In 2014 and 2016, size and condition of ash trees were recorded and area of live white ash phloem was estimated in an 18-m-radius plot centered around each of the DD traps. Area of live white ash phloem per site ranged from approximately 24 to 421 m2 in 2014 and from 24 to 411 m2 in 2016. Canopy condition of live white ash trees generally improved; 65% and 89% of the trees had healthy canopies (<20% dieback) in 2014 and 2016, respectively. Traps in 28, 29 and 30 of the sites captured a total of 580, 585, and 932 EAB adults in 2014–2016, respectively. Area of live ash phloem explained relatively little of the variation in total EAB captures in all three years. Low trap catches, along with relatively stable canopy conditions and continued abundance of live white ash, indicate that EAB populations remain below the carrying capacity of the sites, and ash phloem availability is not a limiting factor for EAB abundance. Further monitoring to track both EAB dynamics and tree condition is needed to determine the long-term outlook for white ash in these sites.

Strength grading of northern hardwood species for structural engineered wood products: Identification of the relevant indicating properties

Strength grading of hardwoods is a prerequisite to use them in structural engineered wood products. However, hardwood strength grading is considerably less developed than it is for softwood species. Previous study has shown that white ash and yellow birch are promising species for the manufacture of glued-laminated timber. However, no strength grading procedure dedicated to hardwoods is available in Canada. The objective of this study was to identify the relevant indicating properties for predicting the ultimate tensile strength of the investigated species. A model selection approach allowed to identify the most performing models and to compare, for each species, the relative impact of the indicating properties. The indicating properties included in the final models were the density of the specimens, the dynamic modulus of elasticity, the sinus of the maximum local grain deviation (SGDmax) as well as the knot area index (KAI), derived from the knot area ratio. The final models revealed important differences between the two species, indicating that it may be relevant to grade them separately to ensure the most efficient utilization of the resource. The coefficients of determination between the actual and model predicted UTS were 0.82 for white ash and 0.78 for yellow birch.

Índices Espectrais e Temperatura de Superfície em Áreas Queimadas no Parque Estadual do Araguaia em Mato Grosso

As queimadas impactam negativamente a biodiversidade dos ecossistemas naturais, alterando os atributos físicos e biológicos e influenciando os fluxos de energia e biogeoquímicos. Sendo assim, o objetivo deste trabalho foi analisar através do sensoriamento remoto o efeito de áreas queimadas sobre os índices espectrais NDVI (Índice de Vegetação por Diferença Normalizada) e NBR (Índice de Queimada Normalizada) e na temperatura de superfície no Parque Estadual do Araguaia (PEA) em Mato Grosso, Brasil. Imagens do satélite de Landsat 8 OLI foram utilizadas para analisar a superfície no período pré-queimada (15/06/2015) e pós-queimada (21/10/2015) no Parque Estadual. Os resultados demonstraram que o NDVI apresentou maiores valores nas áreas com vegetação densa e menores valores em solo exposto, associados à vegetação seca, carbonização ou com completa ausência de vegetação. O NBR apresentou valores negativos nas áreas queimadas, devido ao aumento da refletância após passagem do fogo devido à deposição de cinzas brancas. A temperatura da superfície foi maior no pós-queimada relacionada a uma maior capacidade de absorção da superfície (cor preta das cinzas). Estes resultados são atribuídos aos efeitos combinados de maior exposição do solo, aumento da absorção da radiação pela vegetação carbonizada e redução da evapotranspiração relativa à vegetação verde existente no período pré-queimada. Spectral Indexes and Surface Temperature on Burnt Areas at Araguaia State Park in Mato Grosso A B S T R A C TFires harm the biodiversity of natural ecosystems, changing physical and biological attributes and influencing energy and biogeochemical flows. Therefore, the objective of this work was to analyze through remote sensing the effect of burnt areas on the NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) and NBR (Normalized Burn Index) spectral indexes and on the surface temperature in Araguaia State Park (PEA) in Mato Grosso, Brazil. Satellite images of Landsat 8 OLI were used to analyze the surface in the pre-burned (06/15/2015) and post-burned (10/21/2015) period in the State Park. The results showed that NDVI showed higher values in areas with dense vegetation and lower values in exposed soil, associated with dry vegetation, carbonization or with a complete absence of vegetation. The NBR showed negative values in the burnt areas, due to the increase in reflectance after the passage of the fire due to the deposition of white ash. The surface temperature was higher in the post-firing period due to a greater absorption capacity of the surface (black color of the ashes). These results are attributed to the combined effects of greater soil exposure, increased absorption of radiation by carbonized vegetation and reduced evapotranspiration relative to green vegetation in the pre-burned period.Keywords: Fire; Protected Area; Remote Sensing.

Painted clay sculpture in Shanxi Province: Material analysis of the Tutang Buddha and two attendants in Jingyin Temple, Taiyuan

There are more painted clay sculptures in Shanxi Province than in any other province in China. These fine relics, dating from the Sui and Tang dynasties to the Ming and Qing dynasties, are important to the study of ancient sculpture in China. We investigated the Tutang Buddha (from the Jin dynasty) and two attendant bodhisattvas (from the Ming dynasty) in the Buddha Pavilion of the Jingyin Temple in Taiyuan. The Tutang Buddha was the first clay Buddha in Jinyang (now Taiyuan). According to the inscription, the Tutang Buddha was carved out of the hill. Our onsite investigation revealed that there were coarse and fine layers of clay mixed with wheat straw. It is clear that the construction of the Tutang Buddha is different with the traditional painted clay sculpture. The two attendant bodhisattvas are the traditional painted clay sculptures, which consist of a wood framework covered with layers of coarse clay, fine clay, white ash, paper and pigments. Damaged sections of the painted sculptures were visually examined, sampled and subsequently analysed. All three sculptures have been repainted at least twice. The material samples were analyzed using scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive spectrometry, Raman spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, biological microscopy, and particle size analysis. The analysis enabled us to infer the techniques used by the creators of the sculptures. This research provides a foundation for the conservation and future protection of these and similar sculptures.

Growth and Physiology Vary Little Among North American, an Asian, and a North American x Asian Hybrid Ash in a Common Garden in Ohio, U.S.A

The emerald ash borer (EAB) (Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire) invasion of North America has increased interest in ash (Fraxinus, Oleaceae) phylogeny, ecology, and physiology. In a common garden in central Ohio, we compared the performance of three North American ash cultivars that are highly susceptible to EAB (F. pennsylvanica ‘Patmore,’ F. americana ‘Autumn Purple,’ and F. nigra ‘Fall Gold’), one North American species that is less susceptible to EAB (F. quadrangulata), and two taxa that are resistant to EAB (F. mandshurica and F. mandshurica × F. nigra ‘Northern Treasure’). During the 2015 growing season, we measured diameter growth, foliar N concentration, specific leaf area, and on four dates (two with adequate and two with low precipitation) we measured CO2 assimilation rate (A), stomatal conductance (gs), intercellular CO2 concentration (Ci), photosynthetic nitrogen use efficiency (PNUE), variable fluorescence (Fv’/Fm’: efficiency of energy harvested by open photosystem II reaction centers), and the fraction of photons absorbed by photosystem II that were used for photosynthesis (ɸPSII). F. pennsylvanica grew fastest and on most sampling dates was superior in physiological performance (A, gs, and ɸPSII). Generally, however, there was little interspecific variation in growth and physiology among the different ash taxa tested, as all performed well. This suggests that the EAB-resistant F. mandshurica and F. mandshurica × F. nigra hybrid, as well as the moderately resistant blue ash, are as physiologically well-suited to growing conditions in the Midwestern United States as green and white ash cultivars that had been widely planted prior to the EAB invasion.

White ash (Fraxinus americana) survival in the core of the emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis) invasion

Despite catastrophic ash (Fraxinus spp.) mortality observed by the mid-2000s in the epicenter of the emerald ash borer (EAB) (Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire) invasion in southeast Michigan, we noticed numerous live white ash (Fraxinus americana L.) in some forests in this region. In 2015, we inventoried overstory trees and regeneration in 28 white ash sites spanning 11 counties. White ash survival ranged from 0% to 100% of stems. Overall, 75% of 821 white ash trees, ranging from 10.0 to 44.0 cm diameter at breast height, and 66% of the white ash basal area, ranging from 0.3 to 3.5 m2·ha–1, were alive. Nearly all live white ash had signs of previous EAB colonization, but 83% had healthy canopies (≤10% canopy dieback). Green ash trees were recorded in 27 sites, but 92% were killed by EAB. Model selection indicated that variation in white ash survival was related to white ash abundance and distance of sites from the original EAB epicenter but not to green ash related variables or to the distance of sites from the Asian parasitoid release or recovery locations. Regeneration strata were dominated by white ash, suggesting that some white ash populations may persist in post-invasion areas.