Turn the pain and affliction into thinking about the beauty

The article reflects on the importance of opposing Polish women - prisoners of the German Nazi concentration camp FKL Ravensbrück - to the practices of the German authorities (guards and medical staff of this camp) used against prisoners. One of the forms of opposing the totalitarianism of the Third Reich was secret teaching. At FKL Ravensbrück, female teachers taught fellow prisoners - “the rabbits”. This term was used to describe the women who underwent medical experiments in the camp: 74 Polish women and 12 women of other nationalities. Professor Karolina Lanckorońska found herself in the camp's conspiratorial teaching staff. The source base for the analysis are the war memories of female prisoners, including Dr. Wanda Półtawska and Dr. Urszula Wińska. The summary shows the issue of the protection of values by people subjected - against their will - to life in extreme conditions.

The Concept of the Patient’s Autonomy: From the Vaults of Civil Law

The concept of patient’s rights itself was fairly known before the last four or five decades, and medical malpractice of all kinds made the aggrieved party to seek redress at a court; but no special legislation, apart from rare exceptions, has ever existed to anchor the patient’s rights before the late 20th century. In the civil law tradition of the 20th century, especially its earlier decades, doctors could be held criminally or civilly liable for a wide variety of malpractice, including unauthorised medical intervention or divulgation of patient’s information, though such provisions did not develop actual rights, were quite general in their nature, and were individually assessed by the courts in each case. Within in the gradual change in the doctrines of medical law, the term “autonomy”, shaping the patient’s right to decide what medical interventions could or could not be performed upon his body, intervened into the existing legal scholarship, which was later augmented with various issues, such as access to medical records of the patient, refusal of blood transfusion, participation in medical experiments, deciding upon end-of-life situations or relating to various reproductive law considerations, not always permitted by national law. Many of these rights are much older than the concept of patient’s autonomy themselves, and have developed in the case law which itself has originated from lawsuits against doctors and hospitals for acts, being nearly obscure in the existing legal doctrine, such as unauthorised medical experiments. The given paper is aimed to discuss the academic development and overall gist of the patient’s right to autonomy, as well as some of its early interpretations in civil law doctrine. Keywords: patient’s rights, medical malpractice, theory of law, medical law, patient autonomy, civil law.

Ethics and society review: Ethics reflection as a precondition to research funding

Researchers in areas as diverse as computer science and political science must increasingly navigate the possible risks of their research to society. However, the history of medical experiments on vulnerable individuals influenced many research ethics reviews to focus exclusively on risks to human subjects rather than risks to human society. We describe an Ethics and Society Review board (ESR), which fills this moral gap by facilitating ethical and societal reflection as a requirement to access grant funding: Researchers cannot receive grant funding from participating programs until the researchers complete the ESR process for their proposal. Researchers author an initial statement describing their proposed research’s risks to society, subgroups within society, and globally and commit to mitigation strategies for these risks. An interdisciplinary faculty panel iterates with the researchers to refine these risks and mitigation strategies. We describe a mixed-method evaluation of the ESR over 1 y, in partnership with a large artificial intelligence grant program at our university. Surveys and interviews of researchers who interacted with the ESR found 100% (95% CI: 87 to 100%) were willing to continue submitting future projects to the ESR, and 58% (95% CI: 37 to 77%) felt that it had influenced the design of their research project. The ESR panel most commonly identified issues of harms to minority groups, inclusion of diverse stakeholders in the research plan, dual use, and representation in datasets. These principles, paired with possible mitigation strategies, offer scaffolding for future research designs.

Allowing for stratification in sample size planning of two-arm trials with continuous or binary outcome: Overview and tutorial

More often than not, clinical trials and even nonclinical medical experiments have to be run with observational units sampled from populations to be assumed heterogeneous with respect to covariates associated with the outcome. Relevant covariates which are known prior to randomization are usually categorical in type, and the corresponding subpopulations are called strata. In contrast to randomization which in most cases is performed in a way ensuring approximately constant sample size ratios across the strata, sample size planning is rarely done taking stratification into account. This holds true although the statistical literature provides a reasonably rich repertoire of testing procedures for stratified comparisons between two treatments in a parallel group design. For all of them, at least approximate methods of power calculation are available from which algorithms or even closed-form formulae for required sample sizes can be derived. The objective of this tutorial is to give a systematic review of the most frequently applicable of these methods and to compare them in terms of their efficiency under standard settings. Based on the results, recommendations for the sample size planning of stratified two-arm trials are given.

A Testament to the Power of Resilience and Friendship Portrayed in Stephen King’s The Institute

We all face Hardships and difficult situations in our life. It’s all about the ups and downs in our day to day life. During these times we may be feeling exhausted and worried. But all that matters is that what we have learned from that tough situation. Resilience is defined as how we bounce back quickly from a difficult situation. The power of resilience arises when we face situational problems, major life problem and day to day problems. Friends are a major element in comforting us during our difficult times. Friends bring more happiness to our lives than virtually anything else. Friendships have a huge impact on our mental health and happiness. Good friends relieve stress, provide comfort and joy, and prevent loneliness and isolation. The Institute (2019) is a science fiction horror novel written by Stephen king. It is one of his terrifying novels yet. Many of his works are transformed into movies and television series. The main focus of this novel is on the power of resilience and friendship among the children who are being kidnapped from their homes and being held captive under a sinister establishment called The Institute. The story is written by taking the ideas of a fictitious child abusing institution where gifted children from all over the country are taken in and they are being forced to undergo atrocious medical experiments. Most of the children have super powers of Telepathy or Telekinesis. That’s the reason they are all here in the Institute. The authorities in the Institute want the children to master their powers so that they can be used in wars. There is no hope of escape for the children, yet they are all finally escaped by the power of resilience and friendship shown by Luke Ellis, the main character in the novel and his friends.

Development and Human Testing of Chemical Warfare Agents and Means of Treatment of Lesions in Germany in 1933–1945

Despite serious attention to the issues of war crimes and crimes against humanity, committed on an unprecedented scale in concentration camps in Nazi Germany, the problem of medical experiments on prisoners appears to be one of the least-studied in modern Russian historiography. Moreover, no special attention was paid to testing chemical weapons on humans. The aim of this work is to review the history of the development and testing of chemical warfare agents (CWA) in Germany in 1933–1945. During the First World War, Germany was one of the leading countries in the sphere of military chemistry in the world. After the Versailles treaty this potential was largely lost as a result of the restrictions. After the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP) came to power, Germany not only restored, but also increased its military power and achieved a qualitative superiority over its opponents in the field of chemical weapons. The tests of CWA, as well as the study of the effectiveness of the means and protocols for the treatment of the lesions caused by CWA, were carried out both by the military structures of the Wehrmacht and the SS, and by civilian research and academic institutions. Experiments on prisoners were carried out in the concentration camps of Dachau, Ravensbrück, Auschwitz-Birkenau, Buchenwald, Sachsenhausen, Natzweiler-Struthof, Neuengamme, etc. Basically, the damaging effects of sulfur mustard and phosgene was investigated. In Auschwitz-Birkenau «a study of the action of various chemical preparations was carried out on the orders of German firms». After the war several SS doctors, who performed involuntary experiments on humans, were convicted by military tribunals for war crimes and crimes against humanity. Seven doctors were sentenced to death and executed on June 2, 1948, at the prison for war criminals in Landsberg, Bavaria. As a result of the Nuremberg trials, the Nuremberg Code was drawn up. It was the first international document that introduced ethical standards for scientists engaged in experiments on humans. It consisted of 10 principles, including the necessity of voluntary informed consent of the patient for the participation in medical experiments after providing him with full information about the nature, duration and purpose of the experiment; on the methods of its implementation; about all the perceived inconveniences and dangers associated with the experiment, and, finally, the possible consequences for the physical or mental health of the subject, which may arise as a result of his participation in the experiment.

The Childhood Betrayal and Hope Regained in Stephen King’s The Institute

Childhood is a time worth remembering in everyone’s life. We all cherish the beautiful memories and fun we had in our childhood once we’re old. We never know the real value of a moment until it becomes a memory. Even now we are happy to go back to those places where we have spent our childhood. Thinking about it fills our heart with nostalgic feelings. But have you ever thought about children who never had such a beautiful childhood as yours? This novel takes us to those children who are being kidnapped from their parents and sent into a frightening government facility called ‘The Institute’ for gifted children! The Institute (2019) is a science fiction horror novel written by Stephen King. It is one of his terrifying novels yet. Many of his works are transformed into movies and television series. The main focus of this novel is on the childhood betrayal done by the authorities running the Institute, and the survival of the children. The story is written by taking the ideas of a fictional child abusing institution where gifted children from all over the country are taken in and they are being forced to undergo dreadful medical experiments. Most of the children have super powers of Telepathy or Telekinesis. The officials running the Institute want the children to get control over their powers and to master them, so that they can be used in wars. They can be used as weapons against terrorists, and as mind readers. The doctors don’t treat them like humans. To them they are merely test subjects. The government kills any test subjects it can’t control because only then it can keep the country safe. There is no hope of escape for the children, yet they are all finally escaped by the brave efforts of Luke Ellis, the main character in the novel and his friends.

Radiation medical experiments in the United States (early 1930s – mid1970s)

The subject of this research is the period of human radiation experiments within the framework of the Manhattan Project and the Cold War. This phenomenon took place in 1945–1974.and contradicts all known standards of the United Nations that protect human rights in the United States and worldwide. Medical radiation research were conducted in stringent secrecy of the undertaken experiments and their outcome. This article employs the problem-analytical approach for analyzing the phenomenon of human radiation experiments. The research leans on the principle of historicism, according to which human radiation experiments are traced from 1930 to the emergence of the Manhattan Project, the Cold War years, until the records were declassified in 1990s. The novelty of this work is defined by the fact that the problem of antihuman radiation tests of the Manhattan Project is poorly studied in the Russian historiography. The US archival documents and literature that ensure the objectivity of this study comprise majority of the sources. The following conclusions were made:1) on the one hand, human radiation experiments were essentially directed against the population of pro-Soviet countries, but in fact carried out on the civilians of the United States of America with discriminatory orientation towards racial minorities, economically disadvantaged, seriously ill and incurable clinic patients, disabled people, mothers and children; 2) on the other hand, these experiments contributed to the development of radiation therapy for treating cancer patients, although having undermined the health of hundreds and generating incurable forms of diseases. From the scientific perspective, human radiation experiments have enriched medical science with new knowledge on various influence of radioactive elements on the human body.

About the Necessity and Limits of Vivisectional Experiments in Medicine

The aim of this research was to study the possibilities and limits of conducting acute medical experiments from the moral and legal aspect. Modern Russian and foreign literature sources, as well as the latest scientifi c works on the problem under study, were reviewed. It was found that acute experiments are applied in a wide range of scientifi c research studies. The existing alternative methods cannot abolish the use of laboratory animals. Laboratory animals remain a suitable bio-model for conducting preclinical tests and experiments. Currently, vivisection is a necessary research method due to the lack of adequate alternatives.

History of controlled trials in medicine: real priorities are little-known. Report 1. Basic concepts, terms, and disciplines that use medical experiment: historical and philosophical sources

The three-report review was aimed at describing the historical development of clinical trials, controlled trials (CT) and randomized controlled trials (RCT), and the inclusion of these experimental approaches in disciplines related to both the health of individuals and populations (medicine and epidemiology). In Report 1, the authors consider the terminology issues applied to CT and RCT, the sources of the involved concepts, and relevant disciplines. It was shown that the terms ‘control’ and ‘trial’ appeared in experimental literature only at the end of the 19th century, ‘CT’ appeared in the first third or quarter of the 20th century, and the term ‘RCT’ appeared only in 2000s. It was found that approaches with CT and RCT were often included even in classical epidemiology, and this fact eliminates the specificity of differences between observational and experimental disciplines and blurred the difference between inductive and deductive methodologies. Scientific, philosophical, conceptual, and historical aspects were also considered for three areas that included CT and RCT: epidemiology, clinical epidemiology and evidence-based medicine (EBM). It was concluded that classical epidemiology, using predominantly inductive approaches, was not the scope of real medical experiments, in the first place, and, secondly, its prognosis was not aimed at the individual. At the same time, both clinical epidemiology and EBM, which mainly use deductive approaches, involve experiments, making it possible to make prognosis for a particular patient. The proposed summarizing scheme of the historical origins and philosophical foundations of disciplines aimed at finding and proving health effects using observational and experimental approaches reflects the problems considered and covers individual time milestones, which, as a rule, are not named in modern epidemiology textbooks and textbooks of other disciplines.