Models: the fourth dimension of computer science

Models are a universal instrument in science, technology, and daily life. They function as instruments in almost every scenario. Any human activity can be (and is) supported by models, e.g. reason, explain, design, act, predict, explore, communicate, collaborate, interact, orient, direct, guide, socialises, perceive, reflect, develop, making sense, teach, learn, imagine, etc. This universal suitability is also the basis for a wide use of models and modelling in Computer Science and Engineering. We claim that models form the fourth dimension in Computer Science. This paper sketches and systematises the main ingredients of the study model and modelling.

US Policy in Conditions of Growing Non-Military Challenges in Europe

The article deals with the problem of new, non-military challenges for the US in Europe. Previously Washington saw the main regional risks in the military-political sphere. Now serious challenges are emerging in issues of trade, technological and information security. It also appears to lack initiative for regional development. To a large extent, the risks can be associated with the activities of the PRC. The study analyzes the American policy in specific areas (trade, 5G networks, energy exports, relations between allies). The main approaches that Washington can apply to protect its regional interests are as follows: attempts to put pressure on allies by introducing new tariffs and reducing cooperation in several areas; the desire of the US to provide an alternative to the projects of the PRC in the region; deliberate militarization of several topics by the US. But still, the universal instrument is the emphasis on shared values and the issue of human rights. The resolution of bilateral problems between the US and the EU will not fully deal with new risks. Trying to fend off the challenges emanating from the PRC, the US has to partially repeat and duplicate Beijing's policy, creating alternative infrastructure projects or trying to promote its LNG instead of Russian gas.

International legal regulation of transnational cybercrime in cyberspace

The article considers the international legal regulation of combating cybercrime, which is considered as a transnational phenomenon. In the group of transnational crimes, along with drug trafficking, terrorist acts, money laundering, illegal import of migrants, human trafficking, firearms trafficking, counterfeiting, etc., cybercrimes play an important role in terms of public harm, unprecedented and rapid growth. The mechanisms and directions of the fight against cybercrime developed by international criminal law are studied, among which the international legal regulation is of fundamental importance, and difficulties in defining the concepts of "cybercrime" and "computer crimes" are noted. The classification of types of cybercrimes is given and their most characteristic features are revealed. The author analyzes the international normative documents that form the legal basis for regulating relations in the field of international cybercrime, among which the most prominent are conventions, including the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime of November 15, 2000, the Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime of November 23, 2001 and Additional Protocol to it of January 28, 2003. The obligations of states to criminalize cybercrime in national legislation are analyzed, the types of illegal actions related to cybercrime are considered, in particular the main four groups of crimes classified in the 2001 Cybercrime Convention by Gender object and on specific grounds of the object of encroachment: 1) crimes against confidentiality, integrity and availability of computer data and systems; 2) offenses related to the use of computer tools; 3) offenses related to the content of data; 4) offenses related to infringement of copyright and compatible rights, as well as additional types of liability and sanctions (attempt, complicity). The Protocol to the 2003 Cybercrime Convention expands this range of crimes and contains obligations to criminalize the following acts: distribution of racist and xenophobic material through computer systems. The limitation of the 2001 Convention on Cybercrime, adopted by the Council of Europe, and the need to adopt a universal instrument that would significantly increase the fight against cybercrime are noted.

Populism in the political culture of Turkey: The foreign policy dimension

The paper analyses the phenomenon of populism and its impact on Turkish foreign policy in three dimensions: institutional, instrumental and ideological. The research scrutinizes a wide selection of party manifestos and public speeches of Turkish politicians with primarily focus on Recep Tayyip Erdoğan’s statements during his incumbency as the prime-minister and the president. The embeddedness of populism in political culture of Turkey provided it with ideological flexibility and made populism almost a universal instrument for engaging with electorate. Starting from Turkey’s transition to multiparty system the majority of political actors have resorted to populism in one or another way. Erdoğan has not only continued this tendency but mastered the populist rhetoric. The character and content of Erdoğan’s populism fluctuated following the changing domestic and international environment. In the 2000s it was hinged on the loose concept of conservative democracy. At the turn of the 2000s and 2010s the dreams for the EU membership gave way to ideas of ‘civilizational expansionism’ which had the concept of Islamic/Ottoman civilization as its core. From the mid-2010s ultra nationalism has come to the forefront of the populist rhetoric. Eventually, the populist binary opposition of ‘us’ and ‘they’ took a definite shape of global confrontation between Turkey as a defender of Islam and the ‘adverse’ West. Populist rhetoric helped Erdoğan to justify his almost two-decades-long incumbency and evade direct responsibility for economic hardships of the 2010s. Populism has become an effective instrument to monopolize the foreign policy in the hands of Erdoğan. Utilizing negative rhetoric against Turkish professional diplomats within the last decade Erdoğan has managed to cement his clout over the foreign-policy making. Institutionally the expansion of populism in the sphere of foreign policy led to its ‘domestication’ and ‘nationalization’ while its impact on the foreign policy discourse manifested itself in the spread of civilizationism. Making both domestic and foreign policy process more personalized Erdoğan has reinforced ‘personal authoritarianism’ at the expense of the state institutions. Thus their decline led to the ‘Erdoğanization of the Turkish politics’. The declarative pursuit of Turkey to get more independent and autonomous position in the international system resulted in the strategy of development with primarily focus on the bilateral relations with different states. Consequently Turkey, previously known as a consistent advocate of regional cooperation and integration, in many respects has become a regionally isolated state.

Neural Syntheses

One of Tudor’s last projects used an instrument custom-made for him using the neural network chip that had just been developed. The Neural Synthesizer began as an attempt to build a universal instrument that would synthesize the proliferation of his modular devices. But the actual mechanism of the analog chip, which happened to be an extensive array of amplifiers, shifted the nature of the endeavor, causing a return to the no-input works from the 1970s. In this way, the neural network instrument, used against its usual purpose of extracting patterns from past examples, nonetheless found a strange connection with reminiscences of Tudor’s own past. The analyses of Neural Syntheses and Neural Network Plus, two series of works Tudor made using his new synthesizer, further brings up the issue of memory concerning the performance of his music, which is different every time yet open to revivals, something he tried to capture by setting a number to each performance. This also connects to the problem of how Tudor thought of passing his music on to others so that they could be performed in his absence, a natural concern in the last years of his life, but also something that reflected his lifelong interest in the role of memory and reminiscence in music.

Descartes et l’idée de l’homme. Imperfection et perfection de l’homme.

Descartes e a ideia de homem. Imperfeição e perfeição do homem Resumo: O autor nota, por um lado, que Descartes se refere a uma compreensão muito larga, mas também comum e corrente, do homem e, por outro, que o homem não pode ser identificado nem ao corpo, nem à alma, nem mesmo à união do corpo e da alma. Quando falamos da natureza humana, ela evoca o caráter de uma perfeição limitada, cuja particularidade é sua capacidade de ter o livre-arbítrio. A noção do homem enquanto sujeito de (não) perfeição é baseada sobre uma ideia que se define por uma relação à ideia do infinito sob a forma da aspiração a ser mais perfeito. O exercício do livre-arbítrio se articula concretamente a um esforço de atenção e de vigilância que permite evitar um juízo errôneo. A tese exposta se desenvolve, em seguida, em três tópicos. Primeiramente, a razão se apresenta como um instrumento universal do homem, que, por sua vez, aparece como ser polivalente que o utiliza, sendo capaz de se adaptar às situações as mais diversas. Em segundo lugar, a perfeição especificamente humana significará a capacidade de exercer a dúvida e de recorrer às suposições e probabilidades no plano cognitivo. Isso significa, entre outros, que, para a aquisição da perfeição, é preciso reconhecer a sua própria imperfeição. Enfim, em terceiro lugar, a capacidade de usar propriamente o livre-arbítrio conduz à definição de homem como generoso, em que o homem é compreendido no sentido moral mais que no metafísico. Palavras-chave: Homem; Perfeição; Finitude; Atenção ; Livre arbítrio; Generosidade. Descartes et l’idée de l’homme. Imperfection et perfection de l’homme. Résumé: L'auteur note que, d'une part, Descartes se réfère à une compréhension très large, mais aussi commune et courante de l'homme, et de l'autre que l'homme ne peut pas être identifié ni au corps, ni à l'âme, ni même à l'union du corps et de l'âme. Lorsqu’on parle de la nature humaine, elle porte le caractère d'une perfection limitée, dont la particularité est sa capacité d'avoir le libre arbitre. La notion de l'homme en tant que sujet de (non) perfection est basée sur une idée qui se définit par rapport à l'idée de l'infini sous la forme de l'aspiration à être plus parfait. L’exercice du libre arbitre se joint concrètement à un effort d'attention et de vigilance qui permet d’éviter un jugement erroné. La thèse ci-dessus se développe ensuite en trois points. Premièrement, la raison se présente comme un instrument universel de l'homme qui à son tour apparait comme être polyvalent l'utilisant et étant capable de s'adapter aux situations les plus diverses. Deuxièmement, la perfection spécifiquement humaine signifiera la capacité d’exercer le doute et de recourir aux suppositions et probabilités sur le plan cognitif. Cela signifie entre autres que pour l'acquisition de la perfection, il faut reconnaître sa propre imperfection. Enfin, troisièmement, la capacité d'user proprement le libre arbitre conduit à la définition de l'homme comme généreux, où l'homme est compris au sens moral plus que métaphysique. Mots clé: Homme; La Perfection; Finitude; Attention ; Libre arbitre ; La Générosité. Descartes and the idea of man. Imperfection and perfection of man Abstract: The author notes that, on the one hand, Descartes refers to a very broad, but also common and current understanding of man, and on the other that man cannot be identified nor with the body , neither to the soul, nor even to the union of body and soul. When we speak of human nature, it carries the character of a limited perfection, the particularity of which is the ability to have free will. The notion of man as the subject of (non) perfection is based on an idea which is defined in relation to the idea of ​​infinity in the form of the aspiration to be more perfect. The exercise of free will is joined concretely to an effort of attention and vigilance which makes it possible to avoid erroneous judgment. The thesis above then develops in three points. First, reason presents itself as a universal instrument of man who in turn appears to be versatile, using it and being able to adapt to the most diverse situations. Second, specifically human perfection will mean the ability to exercise doubt and use cognitive assumptions and probabilities. Among other things, this means that in order to acquire perfection, you have to recognize your own imperfection. Finally, thirdly, the ability to use free will properly leads to the definition of man as generous, where man is understood more in the moral sense than in the metaphysical sense. Keywords: Man; Perfection; Finitude; Attention ; Free will ; Generosity. Data de registro: 17/11/2020 Data de aceite: 30/12/2020

Ministry of Police of the Russian Empire: implementation of the project by M.M. Speransky

We consider the views of M.M. Speransky on the sphere of the police department, which were not previously the object of special research, as well as the implementation features of his project for the creation of the Ministry of Police of the Russian Empire, designed, according to the creator's plan, to ensure not only order and security, but also oversee the legality of the administration’s activities on the ground. We draw conclusions: firstly, the formation of Speransky’s views took place under the influence of internal needs to strengthen power and maintain order that arose in the Russian Em-pire at the beginning of the 19th century; secondly, Speransky was influenced by the last representative of the European school of Roman law, the ideologue of the Enlightened absolutism J. Dom, who was the first in Europe to see the police as a universal instrument for maintaining order based on the norms of public law, and the lawyer-policeist N. Delamare, who systematized the French police legislation. The Ministry of Police of the Russian Empire, created according to Speransky’s project, was supposed to ensure compliance with the rule of law on the basis of public law and on behalf of the state, as well as protect and, if necessary, restore the rights of subjects as private individuals. The solution of this problem within the framework of the theoretical concept proposed by Speransky, which reflected the needs of the development of Russian society, required a long-term perspective and included a gradual restructuring of police activities, the development of appropriate legal, ideological and personnel support and, in fact, meant a transition to the rule of law. We emphasize the contribution of the Ministry of Police to ensuring victory in the Patriotic War of 1812 and suggest the reasons for its inclusion in the Ministry of Internal Affairs in 1819.

CRIME AS A VIOLATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS

Relevance of the research. The close substantive and functional connection between human rights and a crime forms a complex research subject, though its study is not given sufficient attention in the domestic literature. On the one hand, the concept of human rights violations includes acts that are not always criminalized, on the other hand, not all crimes can be regarded as violations of human rights. Meanwhile, the criminal law is recognized as a universal instrument of protecting human rights, and therefore it must take into account these features of offenses in the mechanism of its functioning. Purpose of the research. The relevant task of this publication is to define a differentiated analysis of the mechanism for the formation of a criminal-legal prohibition on committing dangerous acts, depending on whether they infringe or not infringe on the fundamental rights and freedoms of citizens. Research results. Acts that infringe on fundamental human rights and freedoms are subject to mandatory criminalization. The unlawfulness of such acts is determined precisely by the fact that they violate the general constitutional provisions on the inadmissibility of encroachments on fundamental rights and freedoms. Acts that do not infringe on fundamental human rights and freedoms can be criminalized in accordance with the discretion of the legislator. The establishment of a criminal law prohibition in this case is preliminarily mediated by the construction of sectoral legal restrictions for the relations protected by the criminal law. Such sectoral legal restrictions are subject to the requirements of Part 3 of Art. 55 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation and can be expressed in two of their main forms: either as a complete prohibition of a certain right (freedom), or as a decrease in the options for possible, permissible behavior by establishing various limits of such behavior by state authorities. A differentiated analysis of the mechanism of criminalization of acts, depending on their correlation with violation of human rights, proves that the criminal law itself, formally confirming in the dispositional part, the restriction of the rights of law-abiding citizens, in reality does not restrict them, since the grounds for such a restriction lie outside the criminal law.