Hierarchical Nature of Psychological Problems

All of the dimensions of psychological problem described previously in this book are positively correlated. This means that each dimension of psychological problems has some unique characteristics but also shares important things in common with all other dimensions. The patterns of varying magnitudes of correlations among psychological problems help identify causes and the best ways to prevent and reduce psychological problems. This chapter discusses a formal and testable causal taxonomy of psychological problems to stimulate future research. It is posited that all dimensions of psychological problems are correlated in a hierarchical manner because there is a hierarchy of causes of these problems—and a corresponding hierarchy of the psychological and biological mechanisms through which the causal influences operate. The first level of the proposed causal hierarchy is causal risk factors that are highly nonspecific in the sense of increasing the risk of having some kind of psychological problem but not which specific kind of problem. At the second level of the causal hierarchy, other genetic and environmental risk factors nonspecifically increase risk for any and all dimensions within only one second-order domain of psychological problems, such as only within the internalizing or only within the externalizing problems. Causal factors at the third level are unique to each specific dimension of psychological problems. This testable hypothesis of a hierarchy of causes and mechanisms represents a radical departure from the thinking underlying the putatively distinct diagnostic categories in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.

General Accuracy and General Error Factors in Metacognitive Monitoring and the Role of Time on Task in Predicting Metacognitive Judgments

Gutierrez et al. (2016) conducted an experiment that provided evidence for the existence of two distinct factors in metacognitive monitoring: general accuracy and general error. They found level-1 domain-specific accuracy and error factors which loaded on second-order domain-general accuracy and error factors, which then loaded on a third-order general monitoring factor. In the present study, that experiment was repeated with 170 different participants from the same population. The present study confirmed the original findings. Both studies suggest that metacognitive monitoring consists of two different types of cognitive processes: one that is associated with accurate monitoring judgments and one that is associated with error in monitoring judgments. In addition, both studies suggest domain-specific accuracy and error factors which load onto second-order domain-general accuracy and error factors. Furthermore, in this study we devised an experiment in which general accuracy and general error are treated as separate latent dimensions and found that subjects employ the same resources they use to develop accurate judgments as a “baseline” for calibrating resources necessary in erroneous judgments, but not vice-versa. This finding supports and extends previous findings which suggests that the processes involved in managing metacognitive accuracy are different from those involved in contending with metacognitive error. Future instructional interventions in metacognitive monitoring will be better focused by concentrating on improving accuracy or reducing error, but not both concurrently.

Representation of Kinetics Models in Batch Flotation as Distributed First-Order Reactions

Four kinetic models are studied as first-order reactions with flotation rate distribution f(k): (i) deterministic nth-order reaction, (ii) second-order with Rectangular f(k), (iii) Rosin–Rammler, and (iv) Fractional kinetics. These models are studied because they are considered as alternatives to the first-order reactions. The first-order representation leads to the same recovery R(t) as in the original domain. The first-order R∞-f(k) are obtained by inspection of the R(t) formulae or by inverse Laplace Transforms. The reaction orders of model (i) are related to the shape parameters of first-order Gamma f(k)s. Higher reaction orders imply rate concentrations at k ≈ 0 in the first-order domain. Model (ii) shows reverse J-shaped first-order f(k)s. Model (iii) under stretched exponentials presents mounded first-order f(k)s, whereas model (iv) with derivative orders lower than 1 shows from reverse J-shaped to mounded first-order f(k)s. Kinetic descriptions that lead to the same R(t) cannot be differentiated between each other. However, the first-order f(k)s can be studied in a comparable domain.

Second-order Logic: Properties, Semantics, and Existential Commitments

Quine’s charge against second-order logic is that it carries massive existential commitments. This chapter argues that if we interpret second-order variables as ranging over properties construed in accordance with an abundant or deflationary conception, Quine’s charge can be resisted. This need not preclude the use of model-theoretic semantics for second-order languages; but it precludes the standard semantics, along with the more general Henkin semantics, of which it is a special case. To that extent, the approach of this chapter has revisionary implications; it is, however, compatible with the different special case in which second-order variables are taken to range over definable subsets of the first-order domain, and with respect to such a semantics, important metalogical results obtainable under the standard semantics may still be obtained. Finally, the chapter discusses the relations between second-order logic, interpreted as recommended, and a strong version of schematic ancestral logic promoted in recent work by Richard Kimberly Heck.

Properties, Predication, and Arbitrary Sets

Shapiro and Hale disagree over the appropriate domain of quantification for second-order logic: Shapiro allows property variables to range over the full power set of the first-order domain, whereas Hale restricts the domain to only subsets which can be defined. Hale defends his view, via a discussion of Shapiro’s view that objects in a domain of quantification need not be able to be objects of singular reference (for example, geometrical points and electrons). Shapiro’s view is clearly at odds with Hale’s favoured broadly Fregean approach to ontology, according to which objects are simply those things to which reference may be made by means of actual or possible singular terms.

Preferences of the Teachers in Employing Revised Blooms Taxonomy in their Instructions

In the present study teachers’ preferences in their instructional methods were integrated with the revised model of blooms taxonomy to seek out how much they are incorporating the instructional approaches linked with all six domains of revised bloom taxonomy. The study has also sought out the impact of teachers’ qualifications and teaching experiences on teachers’ preferences for these instructional approaches. The findings show that teachers often use the higher-order domain, while other large domains were found on average. The academic qualification and teaching experience have not found significantly correlated with these instructional approaches. The study suggests that teachers spend their time designing teaching methodologies that can promote higher-level thought skills for students, to improve their student learning qualifications. Teachers can adopt methodologies to enable their students to think and discuss the content, encourage discussion, stimulate students to find information themselves, create cause and effect, encourage student opinion, insert several characters and map concepts in the real world. Besides, additional teaching support can also be expected from educational departments and administrations.

The Young Positive Schema Questionnaire (YPSQ): German Validation, Domain Structure, and Network Analysis in Patients and Matched Controls

Early Adaptive Schemas (EAS) are resilience-oriented counterparts to Early Maladaptive Schemas, which are central in Schema Therapy. The Young Positive Schema Questionnaire (YPSQ) was developed to measure 14 EAS. The higher-order domain structure of negative schemas is frequently used in research and clinical practice but has not yet been empirically investigated for EAS. Objectives of the present study were therefore: (1) Psychometric validation of a German translation of the YPSQ; (2) Replication of EMS domain structure and examination of EAS domain structure via factor analysis; (3) Exploratory description of the EAS network-structure. Participants were 128 psychiatric patients and 256 controls, matched on age and gender, resulting in a mixed sample of N = 384. Regarding psychometric properties, the German YPSQ exhibited satisfying factorial validity, construct and incremental validity, and internal consistency. The examination of the domain structure revealed three domains: Connection & Acceptance, Unimpaired Autonomy & Performance, and Balanced Standards & Adequate Limits. In exploratory network analysis, Optimism was identified as a globally-central schema, while Competence, Emotional Fulfilment, Social Belonging, and Realistic Expectations appeared especially connected within their respective domain. Optimism and Competence were, however, less central in psychiatric patients compared to controls, while Stable Attachment was of increased centrality. Lastly, patients exhibited an overall weaker network connectivity in EAS, suggesting that positive schemas may in general be less readily activated in psychiatric patients compared to controls.