An Emerging, Neglected and Underestimated Zoonotic Parasitic Ocular Infestation: A Comprehensive Review on Thelaziasis

Human thelaziasis is an emerging insect-borne zoonotic ocular parasitic infestation, occur more commonly in rural communities with poor living and low socioeconomic living, and mainly affects the children and old age people, where humans live in close proximity with animals. Human thelaziasis is caused by both Thelazia callipaeda and Thelazia californiensis. T. callipaeda lives under the eye lids, nictitating membranes, orbit, conjunctival sac, lachrymal glands, and lacrimal ducts of cats, dogs, rabbits, horses, cattle, deer, badgers, monkeys, wolves, foxes (definitive hosts) and man being an accidental host. The vectors (intermediate hosts) are non-biting, tear-seeking, diptera flies of family Drosophilidae (fruit flies) Phortica variegata, which feeds on tears of their definitive hosts, including humans. Clinical manifestations include conjunctivitis, lacrimation, itching or pain with foreign body sensation, epiphora, follicular hypertrophy, and less often with severe signs and symptoms such as keratitis, photophobia, ectropion, corneal opacities (due to the migration of worm across the cornea), floaters within the eye chamber leading to visual impairment/blindness. The knowledge and scientific information on human thelaziasis is still unknown or relatively limited to many ophthalmologists and clinicians, and received little attention; hence this comprehensive and systematic review of human thelaziasis, is undertaken to highlight its importance and further research.

The impact of Pandemic COVID-19 on cases of Borreliosis infection in 2020

Borreliosis (Lyme borreliosis; Lyme disease) is a zoonotic disease caused by spirochetes from the genus Borrelia. In humans, the accidental host of ticks, the infection is transmitted by the bite of the tick - the spirochetes are present in the salivary glands of the tick. Any of the three forms of tick: larva, nymph and adult can be responsible for infection. The most common threats to humans are Borrelia burgdorferii sensu stricto, Borrelia garinii and Borrelia afzelii occurring mainly in Europe. Lyme disease is a complex, multi-stage disease and progresses in 3 stages. The targeted treatment of Lyme disease is based on the administration of antibiotics. The introduction of antibiotics in the early stages of Lyme borreliosis offers a good chance of a complete cure. Lyme disease is a major epidemiological problem in the world. In Europe, the average number of cases per year remains at 65,400. In Poland, the number of infections annually reaches several tens of thousands. According to the National Institute of Hygiene of Poland, which keeps statistics of epidemiological reports, a total of 83,495 people fell sick with Lyme disease in Poland between 2016 and 2019. Whereas in 2020, the number of cases of Lyme disease decreased to 12933. The reason for this is undoubtedly the COVID-19 pandemic, which has dominated health care and focused all the attention of medical workers. This review shows that Lyme borreliosis is a dangerous disease with a high risk of complications. A quick diagnosis is crucial in the therapeutic process. An algorithm should be developed in order to distinguish other diseases from Lyme disease and thus enable an early reaction and treatment.

Rare presentation of isolated hydatid disease of the breast

Isolated hydatid disease of the breast is a rare condition, possessing a diagnostic dilemma for the clinicians. Hydatid disease is common in endemic areas affecting most commonly the liver and lungs. Other organs rarely involved are the kidney, bone and brain. It is caused by the parasite Echinococcus granulosus, widely spread by cattle and sheep. Humans are the accidental host for this organism. We present a similar case of isolated hydatid cyst of the breast, which was diagnosed preoperatively and managed successfully.

Good host - bad host: molecular and evolutionary basis for survival, its failure, and virulence factors of the zoonotic nematode Anisakis pegreffii

Parasitism is a highly successful life strategy and a driving force in genetic diversity that has evolved many times over. Consequently, parasitic organisms have adopted a rich display of traits associated with survival that guarantees an effective “communication” with the host immunity and a balance with surrounding microbiome. However, gain/loss of hosts along the evolutionary axis represents a complex scenario that as contemporary onlookers, we can observe only after a long time displacement. The zoonotic and monophyletic Anisakidae diverged from its terrestrial sister group Ascarididae 150-250 Ma, although a split from their common ancestral host, a terrestrial amniote, seemingly happened already in Early Carboniferous (360.47 Ma). Faced with the sea-level rise during the Permian-Triassic extinction (215 Ma), anisakids acquired a semiaquatic tetrapod host, and as a result of lateral host-switches in Cenozoic, colonised marine mammals, co-evolving with their “new hosts”. Although contemporary anisakids have lost the ability to propagate in terrestrial hosts, they can survive for a limited time in humans. To scrutinize anisakid versatility to infect evolutionary-distant host, we performed transcriptomic profiling of larvae infecting the accidental host (rat) and compared it to that of larvae infecting an evolutionary-familiar, paratenic host (fish). Identified differences and the modeling of handful of shared transcripts, provides the first insights into evolution of larval nematode virulence, warranting further investigation of shared transcript as potential drug therapy targets. Our findings have also revealed some key intrinsic cues that direct larval fate during infection.

Multimodality imaging of an interventricular septum hydatid cyst

Background Cardiac hydatid over the interventricular septum is extremely rare. Echinococcus infests humans as an accidental host. Echocardiography usually clinches the diagnosis of cardiac hydatid. However, multimodality imaging including cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging, computed tomography (CT), and positron emission tomography (PET) helps in supporting the diagnosis and surgical planning. Case presentation We present a 29-year-old male who presented with dyspnea and was found to have cardiac hydatid on the interventricular septum on echocardiography. CT and CMR clinched the diagnosis. CT pulmonary angiography showed extensive pulmonary thromboembolization and cavitary consolidation in lungs. PET showed no active uptake in cardiac hydatid. Post-surgical enucleation of the cyst his hypotension worsened and succumbed. Conclusion Cardiac hydatid has poor prognosis. Multimodality imaging helps in confirming the diagnosis and surgical planning.

Leptospira Infections in Domestic and Wild Animals

Leptospirosis is a worldwide-distributed, re-emerging zoonosis due to the large variety of wild and domestic animal species that can play the role of natural or accidental host. Currently, specific animal species play an important role as the reservoir for particular Leptospira serovars, although recent investigations have highlighted new host–pathogen interactions involved in Leptospira epidemiology. Furthermore, the constant modification of ecosystems and wildlife habitats and the constantly increasing number of animal species moving towards urban or peri-urban areas are increasing the possibility of direct or indirect contacts between wildlife and domestic animals; furthermore, the constant modification of animal leptospirosis also causes problems for human health. The studies published in this Special Issue have evidenced and confirmed the hidden role of a large variety of animal species, domestic and wild, in the leptospirosis epidemiology. They highlighted the necessity for continuous monitoring and large-scale surveillance studies to better understand this neglected and re-emerging zoonosis.

Epidemiological and clinical characteristic of Hymenolepis diminuta infection - review of current literature

Hymenolepis diminuta (rat tapeworm) is widespread worldwide, though in comparison to H. nana it is less frequent in humans (accidental host). The definite hosts, as well as the natural reservoir of H. diminuta, are small rodents. Literature on the subject reports that the predisposition to infestation with this tapeworm mainly concerns small children and adults from a poor socioeconomic background. The epidemiological data presentedin this article provide the lastest scientific information on the prevalence of this parasite, the course of hymenolepiasis, as well as the treatment method. Owing to the low prevalence of hymenolepiasis in humans, the diagnosis, analysis and description of the course of the disease in humans provides new and crucial information on H. diminuta infection.Keywords: hymenolepiasis; tapeworm; epidemiology.

Anthology of Dirofilariasis in Russia (1915–2017)

Dirofilariasis is a helminths vector-borne disease caused by two species of Dirofolaria—D. repens and D. immitis. The former is overwhelmingly associated with human dirofilariasis. The vector of the worm are mosquitoes of the family Culicidae (largely Culex, Aedes and Anopheles). The definitive hosts of Dirofilaria are dogs and to a lesser extent cats. Humans are an accidental host. A total of 1200 human cases caused by Dirofilaria were registered in the territory of the ex-USSR during the period 1915–2016. Zonal differences have been seen in the prevalence of infected dogs and mosquitoes. Studies undertaken in the southern part of the Russian Federation (RF) revealed the prevalence of Dirofilaria in dogs to be 20.8% with wild variations of larva density. Studies carried out in the central part of the RF found that the prevalence of parasites in dogs was 4.1%. Aedes mosquitoes were infected less than Culex and Anopheles mosquitoes. The latter were infected by D. repens more often than Culex and Aedes. Zonal differences were also traced in regard to Dirofilaria prevalence in humans, thus allowing identification of three zones of risk of infection (low, moderate, and stable), reflected in a series of constructed maps. Although Dirofilariasis was known on the territory of Russia from 1915, only sporadic cases of the disease were reported occasionally. Its number was showed an increasing trend only during the 1980s–1990s, reaching the level of hundreds of cases. The majority of cases were confined to the southern parts of Russia with geographic coordinates of 43°–45° on the northern latitude. Comparison of the timing of the global trend of climate warming during the 1990s with the temporal pattern of Dirofilaria on the territory of Russia during the same period demonstrated a close association between two phenomena. With the continuous process of global climate warming, the incidence of dirofilariasis both in man and dogs goes unabated exemplified by the territorial expansion of the disease northwards and eastwards attaining the latitude of 56°–57° on the northern latitude in the European and Asian parts of Russia. It appears that within the period of the last 20–25 years, the population at risk has doubled. Under these circumstances, dirofilariases in Russia should be considered as an emerging public health problem necessitating the establishment of a comprehensive epidemiological monitoring system with strong entomological and veterinary components. Based on the results obtained, an appropriate control intervention could be developed.

Host records and geographical distribution of Corynosoma magdaleni, C. semerme and C. strumosum (Acanthocephala: Polymorphidae)

A literature survey was conducted to investigate the host and geographical distribution patterns of three Corynosoma species (Acanthocephala: Polymorphidae), viz. C. magdaleni, C. semerme and C. strumosum. All three species appear to be restricted to the Northern Hemisphere. Occurrence records of C. magdaleni are limited to the Northern Atlantic coasts, while C. semerme has a circumpolar distribution. The geographical range of Corynosoma strumosum encompasses the distributions of the other two species, but also extends into warmer southern regions. Some Corynosoma populations are living with their definitive hosts in very isolated locations, such as in the brackish Baltic Sea or different freshwater lakes (e.g. Lake Saimaa). All three species have a heteroxenous life cycle, comprising a peracaridan intermediate host, a fish paratenic host and a mammalian definitive host. Occasionally, an acanthocephalan may enter an accidental host, from which it is unable to complete its life cycle. The host records reported here are categorised by type, i.e. intermediate, paratenic, definitive or accidental. While most of the definitive hosts are shared amongst the three Corynosoma species, C. strumosum showed the broadest range of paratenic hosts, which reflects its more extensive geographical distribution. One aim of this study and extensive literature summary is to guide future sampling efforts and therewith contribute to throw more light on the on-going species and morphotype discussion for this interesting parasite species.

Human dirofilariasis: current situation and possibilities for diagnosis

Dirofilariasis in humans is a rarely diagnosed vector-borne zoonotic helminthic invasion. It is caused from filarial nematodes genus Dirofilaria & Railliet Henry, 1911 (Onchocercidae, Nematoda). Usually, the life cycle of the parasite takes place between mosquitoes (Culicidae) and carnivores. The human is an accidental host for the dirofilaria wherefore microfilariae in his blood circulation are almost always absent. The pathology of dirofilariasis results from the accidental localization of immature worms in the human body. Dirofilaria immitis caused heart and pulmonary dirofilariasis, but Dirofilaria repens, D. tenuis, and others can are found in different parts of the human body. The spread and Dirofilaria-invasive rates аrе undergone significant modifications affected by global climate change. Surgical extraction of the parasite in humans usually has a therapeutic effect, after which an etiological diagnosis is possible. The aim of the study is to review the current situation of human dirofilariasis in clinical and epidemiological aspects and possibilities for diagnosis.