Task Difficulty Regulates How Conscious and Unconscious Monetary Rewards Boost the Performance of Working Memory: An Event-Related Potential Study

The performance of working memory can be improved by the corresponding high-value vs. low-value rewards consciously or unconsciously. However, whether conscious and unconscious monetary rewards boosting the performance of working memory is regulated by the difficulty level of working memory task is unknown. In this study, a novel paradigm that consists of a reward-priming procedure and N-back task with differing levels of difficulty was designed to inspect this complex process. In particular, both high-value and low-value coins were presented consciously or unconsciously as the reward cues, followed by the N-back task, during which electroencephalogram signals were recorded. It was discovered that the high-value reward elicited larger event-related potential (ERP) component P3 along the parietal area (reflecting the working memory load) as compared to the low-value reward for the less difficult 1-back task, no matter whether the reward was unconsciously or consciously presented. In contrast, this is not the case for the more difficult 2-back task, in which the difference in P3 amplitude between the high-value and low-value rewards was not significant for the unconscious reward case, yet manifested significance for the conscious reward processing. Interestingly, the results of the behavioral analysis also exhibited very similar patterns as ERP patterns. Therefore, this study demonstrated that the difficulty level of a task can modulate the influence of unconscious reward on the performance of working memory.

The Role of Incentives in Deciding to Receive the Available COVID-19 Vaccine in Israel

This study aimed to assess the Israeli public’s intention to get vaccinated immediately after the COVID-19 vaccine became available, and to determine the role of incentives beyond socio-demographic, health-related and behavioral factors, in predicting this intention. An online survey was conducted among adults in Israel (n = 461), immediately after the first COVID-19 vaccine became available (22 December 2020 to 10 January 2021). Two regressions were performed to investigate determinants of intention to receive the available COVID-19 vaccine and sense of urgency to receive the vaccine. Although many adults were willing to receive available COVID-19 vaccine, only 65% were willing to immediately receive the vaccine, 17% preferred to wait 3 months and 18% preferred to wait a year. The sense of urgency to get vaccinated differed by age, periphery level, perceived barriers, cues to action and availability. Incentives such as monetary rewards or the green pass did not increase the probability of getting vaccination immediately. Providing data on the role of incentives in increasing the intention to immediately receive the available COVID-19 vaccine is important for health policy makers and healthcare providers. Our findings underscore the importance of COVID-19 vaccine accessibility. Health policy makers should consider allocating funds for making the vaccine accessible and encourage methods of persuasion, instead of investing funds in monetary incentives.

Human Rights Obligations of Private Security and Military Companies: A Review of the Current Legal Framework and Practices

The rapid growth in demand for private military and security services among states,international organizations and non-state actors has turned this activity into a powerful industry withmillions of people who perform – on a contractual basis and in exchange for monetary rewards – actions,which, however, often pose risks to the rights of others, local communities and nations around theworld. The author explains the urgency of the article by high-profile cases of possible participationof private military companies in the events of the occupation of Crimea and the armed conflict inDonbas, initiation of new legislation on military consulting in Ukraine and, at the same time, by themodest attention of Ukrainian jurisprudence to human rights obligations of companies providingsecurity services as non-governmental entities. The author examines the evolution of some approaches to the international legal regulation of private military and security activities and their compliance with modern approaches to humanrights. The author analyzes the features of corporate responsibility in the field of human rights ofprivate military and security companies, the content of which is embodied in the InternationalCode of Conduct for Private Security Providers (ICoC). The analysis compares the approaches ofthe International Code of Conduct for Private Security Providers and the UN Guiding Principleson Business and Human Rights.

IMPACT OF WORK LIFE BALANCE ON EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE IN DEPOSIT MONEY BANKS IN SOUTH WEST NIGERIA

This study examines work life balance and employees performance in money deposit bank in South West Nigeria using GT Bank, Access Bank and WEMA Bank as a case study. Many organizations in western countries recognize the importance of work-life balance, where employees now prefer work-life balance over higher wages. Companies must realize the importance of work-life balance consistently concerning productivity, employee performance, and improving the quality of life of employees. A stratified sampling technique was adopted for this study and survey research method using questionnaire a research instrument. A total number of 1200 employees were selected for this study. The result of the study shows that there is a significant positive relationship between work life balance and Employee performance among employees of Deposit Monetary banks (r = .510; P<.05). The study recommends that recommends that banks in South West Nigeria implement non-monetary rewards as a cost-effective way of boosting morale of the workforce.

Asymmetrical Attention to Gambling-related Stimuli and Pupillary Dilation in Response to Wins and Losses in Problem Gamblers

Gambling disorder and problem gambling are characterized by persistent and repetitive problematic gambling behavior. Attentional bias toward gambling-related stimuli such as casino chips, dice, roulette, etc. have been observed in problem gamblers (PGs), but it remains unclear whether stimuli in gambling tasks elicit greater attention and pupillary responses in PGs. To address this issue, we administrated PGs and non-problem gamblers (NPGs) a gambling task accompanied by eye-tracking measurements, in which the participants were required to choose one of the paired pictures to receive monetary rewards and avoid punishments. Concerning attentional allocation, PG showed a greater attentional preference for the right-hand pictures in the decision and feedback phases, and compared to NPGs, PGs’ attention was narrower and more focused on the left-hand pictures in the decision phase. Concerning pupillary dynamics indicative of noradrenergic locus coeruleus activity, pupillary dilation in response to rewards and punishments was observed only in PGs. Studies of unilateral spatial neglect have proposed that asymmetric attention is induced by hemispheric imbalance. Accordingly, asymmetrical allocation of attention by PGs may reflect hemispheric imbalance, and pupillary dynamics may reflect sensitivity to wins and losses.

Costly habitual avoidance is reduced by concurrent goal-directed approach in a modified devaluation paradigm

Avoidance habits potentially contribute to maintaining maladaptive, costly avoidance behaviors that persist in the absence of threat. However, experimental evidence about costly habitual avoidance is scarce. In two experiments, we tested whether extensively trained avoidance impairs the subsequent goal-directed approach of rewards. Healthy participants were extensively trained to avoid an aversive outcome by performing simple responses to distinct full-screen color stimuli. After the subsequent devaluation of the aversive outcome, participants received monetary rewards for correct responses to neutral object pictures, which were presented on top of the same full-screen colors. These approach responses were either compatible or incompatible with habitual avoidance responses. Notably, the full-screen colors were not relevant to inform approach responses. In Experiment 1, participants were not instructed about post-devaluation stimulus-response-reward contingencies. Accuracy was lower in habit-incompatible than in habit-compatible trials, indicating costly avoidance, whereas reaction times did not differ. In Experiment 2, contingencies were explicitly instructed. Accuracy differences disappeared, but reaction times were slower in habit-incompatible than in habit-compatible trials, indicating low-cost habitual avoidance tendencies. These findings suggest a small but consistent impact of habitual avoidance tendencies on subsequent goal-directed approach. Costly habitual responding could, however, be inhibited when competing goal-directed approach was easily realizable.

Can the reward associated with gaze leading train faster gaze shifts to a jointly attended target?

We investigated whether the reward that has previously been associated with initiated joint attention (the experience of having one’s gaze followed by someone else; Pfeiffer et al., 2014, Schilbach et al., 2010) can influence gaze behaviour and, similarly to monetary rewards (Blaukopf &amp; DiGirolamo, 2005; Manohar et al., 2017; Milstein &amp; Dorris, 2007), elicit learning effects. To this end, we adapted Milstein and Dorris (2007) gaze contingent paradigm, so it required participants to look at an anthropomorphic avatar and then conduct a saccade towards the left or right peripheral target. If participants were fast enough, they could experience social reward in terms of the avatar looking at the same target as they did and thus engaging with them in joint attention. One side had higher reward probability than the other (80 % vs 20 %; on the other fast trials the avatar would simply keep staring ahead). We expected that if participants learned about the reward contingency and if they found the experience of having their gaze followed rewarding, their latency and success rate would improve for saccades to the high rewarded targets. Although our current study did not demonstrate that such social reward has a long lasting effect on gaze behaviour, we found that latencies became shorter over time and that latencies were longer on congruent trials (target location was identical to the previous trial) than on noncongruent trials (target location different than on the previous trial), which could reflect inhibition of return.

EXPRESS: Sales and Self: The Non-Economic Value of Selling the Fruits of One’s Labor

A core assumption across many disciplines is that producers enter market exchange relationships for economic reasons. This research examines an overlooked factor, namely the socio-emotional benefits of selling the fruits of one’s labor. Specifically, the authors find that individuals selling their products interpret sales as a signal from the market, which serves as a source of self-validation, thus increasing their happiness above and beyond any monetary rewards from those sales. This effect highlights an information asymmetry that is opposite to that in traditional signaling theory. That is, the authors find that customers have information about the quality of products that they signal to the producer, validating the producer’s skill level. Further, the sales-as-signal effect is moderated by characteristics of the purchase transaction that determine the signal strength of sales: the effect is attenuated when product choice does not reflect a deliberate decision and is amplified when buyers incur higher monetary costs. In addition, sales have a stronger effect on happiness than alternative, non-monetary forms of market signals such as Likes. Finally, the sales-as-signal effect is more pronounced when individuals sell their self-made (vs. other-made) products and affects individuals’ happiness beyond the happiness gained from producing.

Sharing Personal Information is Discounted as a Function of Social Distance

Social discounting researchers have repeatedly shown that individuals discount sharing the amount of a monetary reward as a function of social distance, and that increasing the available monetary reward decreases sharing. However, no previous study has tested whether sharing nonmonetary commodities are discounted as a function of social distance. The current study tested whether sharing personal information would be discounted similarly to monetary rewards, as well as whether a magnitude effect occurred at a relatively small magnitude difference with 96 university students. A within-participant procedure showed that sharing personal information was discounted as a function of social distance, albeit with a steeper discounting rate relative to both monetary reward magnitudes. However, there was no significant association between personal information discounting rates and monetary discounting rates at either magnitude, suggesting that participants treated each commodity differently (i.e., commodity effect). Replicating previous non-U.S. samples, discounting rates for both monetary reward magnitudes were significantly positively associated with each other and showed a significant magnitude effect, with participants showing significantly steeper discounting rates for the relatively larger monetary rewards. The results for sharing personal information are important because many scams now target personal information in addition to money. Future research should examine what type of personal information is most likely to be shared as a function of social distance, and whether those participants who choose to share more personal information also are at greater risk for scams targeting personal information.