Built environment correlates of walking for transportation: Differences between commuting and non-commuting trips

As a sustainable mode of travel, walking for transportation has multiple environmental, social, and health-related benefits. In existing studies, however, such walking has rarely been differentiated between commuting and non-commuting trips. Using multilevel zero-inflated negative binomial regression and multilevel Tobit regression models, this study empirically examines the frequency and duration of commuting and non-commuting walking and their correlates in Xiamen, China. It finds that (1) non-commuting walking, on average, has a higher frequency and longer duration than commuting walking; (2) most socio-demographic variables are significant predictors, and age, occupation, and family size have opposite-direction effects on commuting and non-commuting walking; and (3) different sets of built environment variables are correlated with commuting and non-commuting walking, and the built environment collectively influences the latter more significantly than the former. The findings provide useful references for customized interventions concerning promoting commuting and non-commuting walking.

Amount, Type, and Timing of Domain-Specific Moderate to Vigorous Physical Activity Among US Adults

Background: Surveillance of domain-specific physical activity in the United States is lacking. Thus, the authors describe domain-specific moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) in a nationwide sample of US adults. Methods: Participants from the AmeriSpeak panel (n = 2649; 20–75 y; 50% female) completed the Activities Completed Over Time in 24-Hours previous-day recall. The authors estimated average MVPA duration (in hours per day) overall and in major life domains by sex, age, race/ethnicity, and education. They also described the most commonly reported MVPAs and timing of MVPA during the day. Results: Across all life domains, participants reported an average of 2.5 hours per day in MVPA. Most MVPA was accumulated during work (50% of total, 1.2 h/d) and household activities (28%, 0.7 h/d) with less MVPA reported in leisure time (15%, 0.4 h/d). Time reported in MVPA varied by sex, and race/ethnicity (P < .05). Walking at work and for exercise, childcare, and walking for transportation were the most commonly reported domain-specific MVPAs. A greater proportion of MVPA took place in the morning (∼06:00 h) and evening (∼18:00 h). Conclusions: Work and household activities accounted for 78% of overall MVPA reported, while leisure-time MVPA accounted for only 15% of the total. Encouraging MVPA during leisure time and transportation remain important targets for promoting MVPA in US adults.

National Trends in Cycling in Light of the Norwegian Bike Traffic Index

National and international strategies and recommendations are intended to increase physical activity in the general population. Active transportation is included in interdisciplinary strategies to meet these recommendations. Cycling seems to be more health enhancing than walking for transportation since cycling seems to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease and associated risk factors. Furthermore, the health benefits of cycling are proven to outrun the risk of injuries and mortality. Politicians seem to approve costly infrastructure strategies to increase the amount of cycling in the population to improve public health and shift to more sustainable travel habits. A linear relationship between cycle-friendly infrastructure and the amount of commuter cycling has been demonstrated. However, in Norway and on a global level, there is a lack of robust evaluations of actions and sensitive monitoring systems to observe possible change. Therefore, we aimed to develop the Norwegian bike traffic index and describe the national, regional, and local trends in counted cycle trips. We used a transparent methodology so that the index can be used, developed, and adapted in other countries. We included 89 stationary counters from the whole country. Counters monitored cycling from 2018 onward. The index is organized at local, regional, and national levels. Furthermore, the index is adjusted for population density at the counter level and presented as ratio of counted cycle trips, comparing 2018 to subsequent years. The index is presented as a percentage change with 95% confidence intervals. In Norway, counted cycle trips increased by 11% from 2018 (100, 100–100) to 2020 (111.0, 106.2–115.1), with large geographical differences. In Southern Norway, there was a significant increase of 23%, and in Northern Norway, there was a nonsignificant decrease by 8% from 2018 to 2020. The indices may indicate possible related effects of local to national cycling strategies and how the COVID-19 pandemic has affected Norwegian travel habits in urban areas.

Effects of Goal Type and Reinforcement Type on Self-Reported Domain-Specific Walking Among Inactive Adults: 2×2 Factorial Randomized Controlled Trial

Background WalkIT Arizona was a 2×2 factorial trial examining the effects of goal type (adaptive versus static) and reinforcement type (immediate versus delayed) to increase moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) among insufficiently active adults. The 12-month intervention combined mobile health (mHealth) technology with behavioral strategies to test scalable population-health approaches to increasing MVPA. Self-reported physical activity provided domain-specific information to help contextualize the intervention effects. Objective The aim of this study was to report on the secondary outcomes of self-reported walking for transportation and leisure over the course of the 12-month WalkIT intervention. Methods A total of 512 participants aged 19 to 60 years (n=330 [64.5%] women; n=425 [83%] Caucasian/white, n=96 [18.8%] Hispanic/Latinx) were randomized into interventions based on type of goals and reinforcements. The International Physical Activity Questionnaire-long form assessed walking for transportation and leisure at baseline, and at 6 months and 12 months of the intervention. Negative binomial hurdle models were used to examine the effects of goal and reinforcement type on (1) odds of reporting any (versus no) walking/week and (2) total reported minutes of walking/week, adjusted for neighborhood walkability and socioeconomic status. Separate analyses were conducted for transportation and leisure walking, using complete cases and multiple imputation. Results All intervention groups reported increased walking at 12 months relative to baseline. Effects of the intervention differed by domain: a significant three-way goal by reinforcement by time interaction was observed for total minutes of leisure walking/week, whereas time was the only significant factor that contributed to transportation walking. A sensitivity analysis indicated minimal differences between complete case analysis and multiple imputation. Conclusions This study is the first to report differential effects of adaptive versus static goals for self-reported walking by domain. Results support the premise that individual-level PA interventions are domain- and context-specific and may be helpful in guiding further intervention refinement. Trial Registration Preregistered at clinicaltrials.gov: (NCT02717663) https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02717663 International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID) RR2-10.1016/j.cct.2019.05.001

Walking for Transportation on Campus: Perspectives from Faculty and Students

Background: Walking is a recommended strategy for meeting physical activity (PA) requirements and benefiting from associated health outcomes. Walking for transportation, which is walking to get from ”Point A” to ”Point B,” may help individuals in fulfilling their weekly recommended PA, though little research has been done as it relates to walking for transportation on a college campus.Aim: To qualitatively explore attitudes and barriers toward walking for transportation and cues to action among a convenience sample of faculty, staff, and students.Methods: Through a non-experimental design, qualitative data were collected through conducting focus groups (n = 10) at a public, southeastern university with college students, staff, faculty (n = 13 students; n = 25 staff; n = 19 faculty).Results: The main themes emerging included: definitions of walking for transportation, factors that encouraged walking for transportation, barriers to walking on campus, and campaign/incentive suggestions.Conclusion: Findings support previous research which indicates situational factors prohibit individuals from walking for transportation. Further, findings indicate it would be of value for future research to determine best practices for promoting and incentivizing walking across various sub-groups not explored in this study. Lastly, point-of-decision prompt use (i.e., campus signage to promote walking) should be explored as a strategy to promote walking and active transport to determine what various groups respond most positively to.

Observational Study of Pedestrian and Cyclist Interactions at Intersections in Vancouver, BC and Montréal, QC

As cycling and walking for transportation continues to become more popular in urban settings, there is increased potential for interactions between different types of road users, including between pedestrians and cyclists. However, because of limited data, we know relatively little about the frequency and nature of pedestrian-cyclist interactions. In this observational study we aimed to quantify the extent of pedestrian crossings that involved an interaction with a cyclist at 10 intersections in Vancouver, British Columbia (BC) and Montréal, Quebec (QC), and identify road user and crossing environment characteristics associated with these interactions. Of the 3,884 pedestrians we observed, 562 (14%) were involved in an interaction with a cyclist. The interaction rate was slightly higher in Montréal (16.5%) than Vancouver (13.4%), but varied considerably across intersections (range from 0.9% to 35.8%). Men were slightly more likely to be involved in an interaction with a cyclist, as well as pedestrians crossing at a slower pace at the beginning of the crossing, and at mid-crossing. Contrary to common thought, distracted pedestrians (either using a cell phone or wearing headphones) were not more likely to be involved in an interaction. When considering the street crossing environment, interactions were more likely at crossings with cycle tracks, stop or yield signs, three-way intersections, crossings that had no pedestrian ground markings, and longer crosswalks. Our study provides insight into interactions between pedestrians and cyclists, a well-known gap in transportation safety, and can help identify which urban design features are needed to ensure safe and comfortable pedestrian crossings.

Effects of Goal Type and Reinforcement Type on Self-Reported Domain-Specific Walking Among Inactive Adults: 2×2 Factorial Randomized Controlled Trial (Preprint)

BACKGROUND WalkIT Arizona was a 2×2 factorial trial examining the effects of goal type (adaptive versus static) and reinforcement type (immediate versus delayed) to increase moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) among insufficiently active adults. The 12-month intervention combined mobile health (mHealth) technology with behavioral strategies to test scalable population-health approaches to increasing MVPA. Self-reported physical activity provided domain-specific information to help contextualize the intervention effects. OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to report on the secondary outcomes of self-reported walking for transportation and leisure over the course of the 12-month WalkIT intervention. METHODS A total of 512 participants aged 19 to 60 years (n=330 [64.5%] women; n=425 [83%] Caucasian/white, n=96 [18.8%] Hispanic/Latinx) were randomized into interventions based on type of goals and reinforcements. The International Physical Activity Questionnaire-long form assessed walking for transportation and leisure at baseline, and at 6 months and 12 months of the intervention. Negative binomial hurdle models were used to examine the effects of goal and reinforcement type on (1) odds of reporting any (versus no) walking/week and (2) total reported minutes of walking/week, adjusted for neighborhood walkability and socioeconomic status. Separate analyses were conducted for transportation and leisure walking, using complete cases and multiple imputation. RESULTS All intervention groups reported increased walking at 12 months relative to baseline. Effects of the intervention differed by domain: a significant three-way goal by reinforcement by time interaction was observed for total minutes of leisure walking/week, whereas time was the only significant factor that contributed to transportation walking. A sensitivity analysis indicated minimal differences between complete case analysis and multiple imputation. CONCLUSIONS This study is the first to report differential effects of adaptive versus static goals for self-reported walking by domain. Results support the premise that individual-level PA interventions are domain- and context-specific and may be helpful in guiding further intervention refinement. CLINICALTRIAL Preregistered at clinicaltrials.gov: (NCT02717663) https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02717663 INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT RR2-10.1016/j.cct.2019.05.001

Associations Between Social and Physical Environments and Older Adults’ Walking for Transportation and Recreation

This study examined the associations between physical environment, social environment, and walking for transportation and recreation among older adults in Hong Kong. Cross-sectional data from 450 older adults (79 years or younger [71.9%], female [79.7%]) from 18 districts in Hong Kong were used. The participants’ perceptions of their physical and social environments were collected, and their walking behaviors were self-reported. The results revealed that positive physical environment facilitators and social environments were associated with increased total walking. Only positive physical environment facilitators were associated with increased walking for transportation, and physical and social environments had no notable effect on walking for recreation. These findings suggest that policy makers and walking intervention designers should develop strategies to enhance physical and social environments to promote total walking and walking for transportation.

Are Changes in Walking for Transportation in Brazilian Older Adults Associated With Attributes of the Neighborhood Environment?

This study aims to examine the association between neighborhood environment attributes and changes in walking for transportation among older adults. Longitudinal analysis was performed considering a population-based study (EpiFloripa Idoso), carried out in 2009–2010 with follow-up in 2013–2014. Changes in walking, obtained with the International Physical Activity Questionnaire during both waves were associated with data from the environment perception, evaluated using individual items from the Neighborhood Environment Walkability Scale (baseline only) performing multinomial logistic regression. A total of 1,162 older adults (65.2% women, mean age = 73.7 years) participated. Those who reported the presence of parks and squares (OR = 2.44, 95% confidence interval [CI; 1.70, 3.51]), sidewalks (OR = 1.66, 95% CI [1.03, 2.70]), crosswalks (OR = 1.69, 95% CI [1.05, 2.72]), illuminated streets (OR = 2.80, 95% CI [1.24, 6.33]), and safety for day walks (OR = 1.93, 95% CI [1.14, 3.24]) were more likely to remain active or become active when commuting (≥150 min/week). Older adults are more active in neighborhoods that present more favorable attributes regarding walking for transportation.