Father absence and trajectories of offspring mental health across adolescence and young adulthood: findings from a UK-birth cohort

Background: High prevalence of parental separation and resulting biological father absence raises important questions regarding its impact on offspring mental health across the life course. However, few studies have examined prospective associations between biological father absence in childhood and risk of offspring depression and depressive symptoms trajectories across adolescence and young adulthood. We specifically examined whether these relationships vary by sex and the timing of exposure to father absence (early or middle childhood). Methods: This study is based on up to 8,409 children from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC). Participants provided self-reports of depression (Clinical Interview Schedule-Revised) at age 24 years and depressive symptoms (Short Mood and Feelings Questionnaire) between the ages of 10 and 24 years. Biological father absence in childhood was assessed through maternal questionnaires at regular intervals from birth to 10 years. We used logistic regression to examine the association between biological father absence and depression/depressive symptoms at age 24. We estimated the association between biological father absence and trajectories of depressive symptoms using multilevel growth-curve modelling. Results: Early but not middle childhood father absence was strongly associated with increased odds of offspring depression and greater depressive symptoms at age 24 years. Early childhood father absence was associated with higher trajectories of depressive symptoms during adolescence and early adulthood compared with father presence. Differences in the level of depressive symptoms between middle childhood father absent and father present groups narrowed into early adulthood. Girls whose father was absent in early childhood, compared with present, manifested higher levels of depressive symptoms throughout adolescence, but this difference narrowed by early adulthood. In contrast, boys who experienced father absence in early childhood had similar trajectories of depressive symptoms compared to the father present group but experienced a steep increase in early adulthood. Girls whose fathers were absent in middle childhood manifested higher trajectories across middle adolescence into young adulthood compared to the father present group. Conclusions: We found evidence that father absence in childhood is persistently associated with offspring depression in adolescence and early adulthood and that this relationship varies by sex and timing of father's departure. Further research is needed to examine whether this relationship is causal and to identify mechanisms that could inform preventative interventions to reduce the risk of depression in children who experience father absence.

Boys and Fatherhood

The academic study both of boys’ lives and of fatherhood has increased exponentially since the late 20th century, with both fields part of a wider expansion of masculinity studies, itself the product of a renewed focus on issues of gender and identity resulting from the rise of feminist studies in the closing decades of the 20th century. While some studies of fathering have paid attention to the topic of parenting boys, and a few of the growing number of studies of boys’ experiences have focused on relationships with fathers, research that brings the two topics together, exploring either fathers’ experience of raising sons, or boys’ relationships with their fathers, is a relatively new and developing field. This is by contrast with the situation in popular discourse, where a good deal of attention has focused on fathers and sons, often with a negative slant, viewing the so-called problem of boys (whether a supposed decline in educational achievement or a rise in antisocial behavior) as the result of father absence and a lack of positive male role models in the lives of boys in modern society. The topic of boys and fatherhood thus stands at the intersection of a number of important areas both of academic interest and of current policy debates and discourses, and this review seeks to include a cross section of those connected discussions from a range of intersecting disciplinary backgrounds. The primary focus is on aspects of boys’ relationships with their fathers, including the influence of those relationships on boys’ developing identities, and the role of fathers in responding to specific challenges in their sons’ lives. The emphasis on relationships complements the broader Oxford Bibliographies in Childhood Studies article on “Fathers” (by Esther McDermott), which focuses on social and structural aspects of fatherhood, as well as its representations. Any review of the academic literature on boys and fatherhood cannot avoid the vexed question of absent fatherhood, which is covered by two sections here: the first attempting to present diverse perspectives on the impact on boys, and the second examining the related debate surrounding the supposed absence of male role models in boys’ lives. The final section reviews the literature on another contentious issue, young fatherhood, and includes a range of perspectives on the implications of boys themselves becoming fathers. Although Oxford Bibliographies in Childhood Studies already includes a review of the literature on teenage fatherhood in the “Teenage Fathers” article (by Andrew M. Kiselica and Mark S. Kiselica), the primary focus there is North American, while the current review seeks both to expand the geographical scope and to reflect more-recent studies. An attempt has been made throughout this review to present a global perspective and to demonstrate the ways in which the issues under discussion play out for boys and their fathers from diverse ethnic and cultural backgrounds.

Ethnic Culture as Related to Sexual and Reproductive Behavior in the Republic of Suriname: The Pervasiveness of Culture

We examined the effects of culture and ethnicity on life history strategies in terms of sexual and reproductive behaviors. The sample included 500 adults, aged 25–50 years, from the five major ethnic groups in Suriname, i.e., the Maroons, Creoles, Hindustani, Javanese, and Mixed. First, there were strong gender differences: men reported to have had more sex partners and to have had their first sexual experience earlier than women, whereas women had their first child earlier and had more children than men. Second, in general, ethnicity affected life history substantially. The Maroons stood out by a relatively fast life history: they reported to have had more sexual partners, to have had their first sex and first child at an earlier age, and to have more children than all other groups. The Creoles were in general similar to the Maroons, whereas the Hindustani and the Javanese were characterized by a relatively slow life history: they reported to have had the lowest number of sexual partners, to have had their first sex and first child at the latest age, and to have had the lowest number of children. The differences between the ethnic groups were upheld when controlling for income, educational level, and father absence during childhood. A lower education was associated with reporting to have had one’s first sex as well as one’s first child at a younger age and children who grew up without a father reported to have had their first sex at a younger age.

Preprint Father absence and academic engagement Osinga et al.

The literature on father absence is criticized for its lack of cross-cultural perspectives and failure to take into account potential mechanisms that are related to associations between father absence and offspring well-being and development. In the present study, we investigated whether father absence was linked to Curaçaoan (n = 564) and Dutch (n = 652) adolescents’ and young adults’ behavioral and emotional (dis)engagement in school. Whereas father absence has often been linked to problems in offspring adjustment, we did not find an association between father absence and offspring academic engagement. It is important to continue studying father absence across demographic characteristics and measures to advance understanding of whether, when, and how this family form might affect offspring well-being and development.

“We Say ‘Mothers’ But Mean ‘Parents’”: Qualitative Perceptions and Experiences With Father Absence Among Curaçaoan, Curaçaoan-Dutch, and Dutch Young People

Perceptions and experiences with biological father absence might vary depending on the extent to which father absence constitutes a common family form, like it does in many Caribbean countries. The goal of this qualitative study was to better understand what it means to grow up without a father for Curaçaoan ( n = 19; 15–24 years), Curaçaoan-Dutch ( n = 15; 14–29 years), and Dutch ( n = 16; 16–26 years) young men and women. Findings from thematic analyses of ethically approved in-depth interviews revealed that most interviewees from all three cultural groups perceived no bond with and upbringing from their absent father. The interviewees noted emotional pain, but also mentioned that (m)others compensated for their father’s absence. Dutch interviewees were more negative about their absent father, and both Dutch and Curaçaoan-Dutch interviewees experienced more difficulties with respect to their father’s absence compared with Curaçaoan interviewees. Studying the similarities and differences between perceptions and experiences with father absence enriches our knowledge of what it means to grow up without a father. Doing so from young people’s point of view and across cultures has important practical value by providing a fuller understanding of the meaning of father absence for young people across cultures.

Mentoring fathers who grapple with fatherhood issues in a faith-based context: A pastoral-theological review

Fathers find themselves increasingly in a social crisis, the fatherhood dilemma, and are misrepresented in various studies and theories intended to shed light on the relationship between mothers and children. Fathers were once considered the pillar of the family, but, over time, society has begun to grapple with father absence as a family issue. This issue has caused a decline in the role and status of fathers. The decline in active fatherhood is a major driving force and one of many issues in society alongside social ills such as crime, violence and poverty. Research has showed that absent fathers affect the development of masculinity in boys and femininity in girls. Families and faith-based communities are directly challenged by father absence. The absence of fathers is a destructive phenomenon and tendency that society has to deal with globally. The role of the father has been devalued and degraded because of father absence. The purpose of this article was to minimise the effects of absent fathers through mentoring which can be a valuable platform for fathers, and it has a biblical nature to solve family issues. Furthermore, mentoring results in a relationship of trust and meaningful commitment, and it provides a helpful and supportive approach to helping fathers who grapple with fatherhood issues. The literature review as a methodology in this article, provided significant knowledge and rich insights to help and support fathers who grapple with fatherhood issues. In addition, the mentoring principles discussed in this study are useful and part of the solution for fathers with fatherhood issues. Mentoring and its process in the paradigm of pastoral theology can be a workable and a possible solution in the confines of households to restore relationships within broken families. This conceptualised from a biblical viewpoint as a solution for Christian fathers. In conclusion, mentoring is a decisive necessity for fathers who grapple with family issues. Relationships are an attribute of families, and mentoring is about relationships. Fathers can be mentored to become great assets to family and society.Contribution: The fatherhood issue is a serious problem in the South African context and no fatherly presence is a negative and devastating trend in many South African homes. Consequently, mentoring as an approach can be a significant contribution to fathers who grapple with fatherhood issues.