Tying it Together

Here, the proposed conceptual framework is brought together as a whole. It begins with the way we communicate with and know the external world by way of our five senses. The roles of the emotions in the memory are examined as memory is foundational to learning. Theories of learning play an important role in the conceptual framework. From the multitude of those available, we must select one or parts of several to apply to the task. One must also consider the various instructional design models and theories and select the one that best fits our instructional objectives. The nine instructional events as identified by Dr. Robert Gagné serves as a pattern for delivering instruction. Learner characteristics provide insight on how to deliver the instruction to a group of students. Evolving instructional technology can help by providing the means of effective and efficient delivery of instruction.

Evolving Instructional Technology

Technology applied to education is developing and becoming more sophisticated at an increasingly rapid pace. Examples include both hardware and software applications among which are course materials such as those open course ware and massive online open courses. Mobile communications via portable and hand-held digital devices provide the means to acquire and interact with courses and course materials. These small devices show considerable promise for application in higher education by making a reality of learning anytime, anyplace. There are two keys to successful operation: the cloud and learning management systems (LMSs). These and yet-to-be-created technologies are making many jobs and occupations obsolete while creating new ones. This rapid change requires a new set of globally oriented people and business skills. Education systems must recognize this change and prepare students to meet the challenges. Two emerging technologies are 3-D printing and blockchain.

Examples With Lesson Plans

The purpose of this final chapter is to provide examples of the application of the conceptual framework. This chapter contains lesson plans for four disciplines: history, science, literature, and archaeology. The four disciplines were chosen to represent science (action potentials and archaeology) and liberal arts (history and literature), all four of which are likely to be found in the curriculum of all universities. Each discipline has an overview element and plans for each of the topics within the units. Instructional technology is used in all the units of each of the disciplines. The methods used to impart the material can be any that the teacher chooses; however, most would work well with a constructivist approach. The nine instructional events developed by Dr. Robert Gagné can be used for all the units.

Education and the Future

How can educators prepare their students for the many changes brought about by the information explosion? It is taking longer for students to finish their undergraduate degrees; more women are successful with earning their degrees that are men. Occupations are disappearing and new ones appearing at increasing speed. Education is one approach, but a changed and more responsive education system will be necessary. Students must learn how to be lifelong learners and discover their interests and talents through aptitude testing followed by counseling. Though of great age, the lecture remains one of the best ways to transmit information and will likely last, but in a modified form. These changes will profoundly affect politics, economics, the environment, and other areas of our lives.

Learner Characteristics for Online Learning

Learner characteristics are vital to student success so that teachers can reach them and stimulate their curiosity such that they will wish to learn and find it interesting. One characteristic unique to the online venue is students feeling isolated. Other distinguishing elements include the type of course, whether students pay for their courses, demographics, self-efficacy, motivation, and control over the learning process. Technical characteristics also affect online learning. These characteristics include user-friendly technology, convenience, sophisticated technology, previous experience with eLearning, and access to mobile technology. Administrative characteristics are also important and include nine constituent elements. These include affective learning engagement and the success of community colleges. Then one must consider recognition of essential learner traits, learning styles, motivational factors, the situation theory of publics, and the role of self-efficacy. Next, administration should promote self-regulatory learning skills and improved course access. Finally, motivation characteristics must also be considered. All of these elements influence student success in online learning.

The Information Explosion

This chapter lays the foundation for the conceptual framework by providing a background of the information explosion. The growth of information is examined from the year 1 AD to 2018 AD. The information explosion produced four major revolutions with intermediate contributions. The four information revolutions were identified by Peter Drucker as the invention of writing, the book, the printing press, and the computer age. This growth is delineated by the years in which information doubled. He compared the advent of the printing press (information revolution three) to the coming of age of the computer and the internet (the fourth of the four information revolutions). Each information revolution generated the need for allied industries. The massive growth of information may be coped with by becoming more effective and efficient learners and teachers.

Theories of Learning

There are a host of theories of learning. Many of these have been around for a long while, and all of them offer sound insight into how people learn, but none offer a unifying theory of learning. Of all these theories, four are treated in this chapter: behaviorism, constructivism, cognitivism, and connectivism. The issue becomes one of selecting a learning theory that matches instructional content and learner characteristics. Instructional objectives guide how the instruction is to be delivered and assessed. These objectives cover three domains: cognitive, psychomotor, and affective with skills contained within them structured hierarchically. The learner's age, interests in the subject content, the nature of the subject, and time available for instruction significantly affect the instructional process. The most important thing an instructor can do is to make the content in their course interesting and relevant to their students.

How We Know the External World

The quest begins by examining the means by which the external world is made known. These data are acquired by way of the senses. In the process, these light, mechanical, and chemical inputs are transduced into electrical impulses and routed to appropriate areas of the brain. Our brain translates these data into conscious impressions. These impressions are routed to our memory, which is divided into sensory, short-term, working, and long-term memory. The retrieval process is the reverse of the storage process. The brain can rewire (neuroplasticity) itself to overcome deficits caused by traumatic injury. Cognitive load, which is limited, can be increased by the formation of schemata. SMART instructional technologies can do much to enhance learning, memory formation, and retrieval.

Instructional Design Models and Theories

Instructional design models help instructors to organize, develop, administer, and evaluate learning programs. Seven of the theories that drive these efforts are situated cognition theory, sociocultural learning theory, the ADDIE model, Merrill's principles of instruction, individualized instruction, Bloom's taxonomy of learning objectives, and the SAM model. All these models are highly iterative meaning that changes are frequent and interlocked. This makes the evaluation of learning that occurred highly important. Dr. Robert Mager is credited with being the father of the instructional objective. The effective performance objective consists of three parts: the terminal behavior, the conditions under which the behavior will be performed, and a standard of acceptable performance. Consequently, the complete objective contains the essence of what should be evaluated. A very key element in this learning process is the provision of immediate and detailed feedback. Several good authoring apps exist that can support computers in performing this task.

Memory Formation, Storage, and Retrieval

The ability to form memories and to retrieve them is fundamental to learning. Neuroplasticity and neurogenesis play a role in this function, as does nutrition, oxygenation, and novelty. There are many types of memory, and the primary of these are sensory, short-term, and long-term. These are further subdivided into yet additional kinds of memory. Perhaps the beginning of memory centers around novelty, which arouses and stimulates the brain, through curiosity. Then, there are many memory pathways. Memories are associated with emotions, scent, hearing, vision, to name those with which we are most familiar. To apply this knowledge to education one must consider mastering study skills. This demands that we make a distinction between learning and memory, for each is dependent upon the other and leads to the use of memory aids. SMART applications must capitalize on the ability of technology to help us to see, to hear, and to obtain feedback.