Seneca’s Moral Letters

Chapter 10 begins by introducing the life and work of Seneca. It explains his activity in the context of the historical situation in the Early Roman Empire and specifically in connection with his relations to various emperors including Nero. The reader is also introduced to the philosophical school of Stoicism, some of the key dogmas of which are highlighted in an analysis of Seneca’s letters. What is important here is that Seneca inverts many of the traditional Roman values by turning the focus away from the outward sphere of power, wealth, and fame. He argues that we should be indifferent to such external things and not allow ourselves to be fixated on them. By contrast, he encourages his correspondent to withdraw within himself. Seneca thus develops a new sphere of inwardness and subjectivity that is important for the later course of Western civilization, where many of these same ideas appear in Christian thinking. Seneca is also the pioneer of modern ideas such as equality among human beings.

Homer’s Odyssey

Chapter 3 begins, by way of introduction, with an outline of the historical context of the Homeric poems. An account is given of the scholarly debates about their authorship and historicity. The chapter interprets key episodes of the Odyssey: Kalypso, the Lotus-Eaters, the Cyclops, the Underworld, and the Sirens. It discusses the Greek warrior ethic and tries to determine the nature of Odysseus as a model hero. It is shown that in the different stories it is possible to discern the Greek view of civilization in contrast to nature. For example, the Cyclops Polyphemus, who represents nature, has, for example, no agriculture or shipbuilding. Although physically much larger and stronger than Odysseus and his men, he is overcome by Odysseus’ knowledge that comes from civilized life in a community. Similarly, the satisfied yet bovine life of the Lotus-Eaters and the victims of the Sirens is rejected in favor of the life of struggle and hardship, which constitutes the true human lot and gives human existence its meaning.

The Hebrew Bible

Chapter 2 presents an account of the nature of the Old Testament or the Hebrew Bible. This includes a brief analysis of its historical context, tradition, and authorship. It treats a few episodes from the beginning of Genesis, specifically, the Creation, the Fall, the Tower of Babel, and the Flood. Comparisons are made with similar stories in The Epic of Gilgamesh. An interpretation is given of the Hebrew anthropology as it appears in the account of the creation of humans and original sin. It is argued that this is the story of how humans first separated themselves from nature and became self-conscious. The second half of the chapter gives a reading of The Book of Job. This story raises similar questions to those found in Gilgamesh about the issue of divine justice. An account is given of the different layers of the text and the different views of its authors. Both works represent a human protest against the divine and the nature of the universe, where humans suffer and die.

Dante’s Inferno

Chapter 13 presents Dante and his Divine Comedy by giving the historical background for his life. Dante is understood as following in the epic tradition of Homer and Virgil, from whom he draws extensively. Most importantly he uses Virgil as a kind of guide and mentor. A comparison is made between Dante’s account of hell and the different accounts of the Underworld in the pagan authors Homer and Dante. It is argued that Dante’s picture presents a more developed sense of subjectivity and individuality, which can be seen most readily in his elaborate system of punishments in the Inferno. This raises anew the question of divine justice which has been discussed in different contexts in the previous chapters. For Dante, the basic principle of divine punishment is referred to as “contrapasso,” which means something like “to suffer the opposite.” The idea implies that the punishment is conceived as the opposite or mirror image of the crime itself. It is thus intended as a natural inversion of the sin. Finally, an account is also given of the changed role of the hero Odysseus, who was hailed as great hero in the Homeric poems, but who here is reviled as a hardened sinner.

Augustine’s City of God

Chapter 12 begins with an introduction to St. Augustine in the context of his historical times. The City of God was written immediately after the sack of Rome in 410 by the Visigoths and in response to those who held Christianity responsible for it. Augustine rigorously defends Christianity against its critics. By means of an analysis of the City of God, this chapter explores Augustine’s vision of pagan Rome as sinful and decadent in contrast to the glorious image presented by Virgil in the Aeneid. Augustine develops Christ’s statements about the inward nature of sin and expands its scope considerably. Building on Jesus’ claims about the Kingdom of God, Augustine develops the idea of the City of God in contrast to the City of Man. Augustine’s account of the origin of evil and his prohibition of suicide are also discussed. Augustine develops a sphere of inwardness that is invulnerable to the changes in the external world.

Virgil’s Aeneid

Chapter 9 begins by introducing Virgil as an epic poet in the tradition of Homer. An account is given of Virgil’s goal to provide Rome with a great national epic during the time of Augustus Caesar. In order to legitimate Rome’s claim to power, Virgil traces the history of Rome back to the hero Aeneas from the Trojan War. An account is given of Virgil’s treatment of the fall of Troy and Aeneas’ love affair with Queen Dido. Aeneas’ character as a hero differs from that of the Homeric heroes in the sense that he is inwardly divided between his personal inclination and his greater sense of duty for the future of Rome. This picture of an inward division recognizes a subjective element, which was not clearly present among the Homeric heroes. An account is also given of Virgil’s portrayal of divine justice and the Underworld. This is contrasted to the account given by Homer in Book XI of the Odyssey. Virgil’s account reveals a greater sensitivity towards the individual and one’s specific actions and responsibility.

Introduction

The Introduction begins by trying to define the humanities disciplines in contrast to the natural and social sciences. It is explained that the present study distinguishes itself from similar works on Western civilization by its attempt to give a philosophical interpretation of this tradition. The Introduction further explains the nature and methodology of the work as a combination of philosophy of history and philosophical anthropology. The thesis of the investigation is that the development of inwardness and subjectivity is an important feature of Western culture. These are ideas and conceptions which, although largely absent among the ancients, are widely celebrated today in our modern world. An attempt is made to sketch the complex phenomena that we mean by the terms “subjectivity” and “inwardness.”

The New Testament: Matthew

Chapter 11 explores the revolution in human thought that took place with the birth of Christianity. The chapter begins with a general account of the New Testament and its modern critics. A general introduction is also given to The Gospel of Matthew specifically, which is examined in order to outline the key elements in Jesus’ teachings. Jesus’ doctrine of love is contrasted to the Greco-Roman warrior ethic that has been discussed in connection with Homer and Virgil. It is argued that the Christian value system in effect inverts the previous value system of the pagan world by arguing that what is valuable in the world is in fact worthless. By contrast, Jesus points to the inner sphere of the individual. This also marks a shift in the Jewish tradition, which was focused on the obedience to external law. This can be seen most clearly in Jesus’ ethical teachings when he claims that the locus of sin is not in the act in the external world but rather in the heart of the individual. This is the beginning of an important change in thinking about the nature of responsibility. Christianity contributed in an important way to the development of subjectivity and inwardness. The chapter ends with a consideration of certain elements of Christianity in the thought of Kierkegaard and Nietzsche.

Plato’s Gorgias and Apology

Chapter 7 explores some key themes in a couple of Plato’s dialogues. It begins with an account of the argument of Callicles, who, in the Gorgias, claims that it is a law of nature that the stronger rule the weaker, and so there can be no talk about what is right or wrong since this is just a matter of human convention. He thus argues that one must strictly distinguish between human law or convention (νόμος‎) and nature (φύσις‎). This argument is an echo of the one made by the Athenian delegation in the Melian Dialogue as described by Thucydides. Socrates’ account of the myth of judgment and the afterlife at the end of the Gorgias is compared with the account given in Book XI of the Odyssey. The chapter also examines Socrates’ speech in the Apology. Here he explains how he regards his philosophical work of questioning people as a divine mission. He further explains that he has an inner daimon which warns him not to do ill-advised things; this is interpreted as a sign of inwardness. He portrays himself as the gadfly of Athens, constantly urging his fellow citizens to reflection and critical thinking. It is argued that Socrates represents a new principle of subjectivity and individuality, and for this reason he was perceived to be so dangerous to his contemporaries who relied on traditional values instead of scientific knowledge.

Thucydides’ History of the Peloponnesian War

Chapter 6 begins by introducing the reader to the Peloponnesian War and Thucydides’ history of it. An account is given of Thucydides’ explanation of his methodology and goal with his work. This is compared and contrasted to that of his predecessor Herodotus. Pericles’ Funeral Oration is discussed as a statement of the Athenian self-image in the context of war and empire. An account is given of Thucydides’ vivid description of the plague in Athens and how this eroded the political support for Pericles and thus ultimately led to the defeat of the city. Thucydides’ account of the Athenians’ negotiations with the Melians is given careful attention in relation to the issue of the use of power and international relations. While the Athenians effectively make a case for might-makes-right, the Melians appeal to a higher principle of justice. This sets the stage for a broader discussion of the nature of ethics. Careful attention is paid to Thucydides’ psychological and sociological observations about what happens when the fabric of society begins to break down in crisis situations.