Validation of the accuracy of geodetic automated measurement system based on GNSS platform for continuous monitoring of surface movements in post-mining areas

The problem involving the monitoring of surface ground movements in post-mining areas is particularly important during the period of mine closures. During or after flooding of a mine, mechanical properties of the rock mass may be impaired, and this may trigger subsidence, surface landslides, uplift, sinkholes or seismic activity. It is, therefore, important to examine and select updating methods and plans for long-term monitoring of post-mining areas to mitigate seismic hazards or surface deformation during and after mine closure. The research assumed the implementation of continuous monitoring of surface movements using the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) in the area of a closed hard coal mine ‘Kazimierz-Juliusz’, located in Poland. In order to ensure displacement measurement results with the accuracy of several millimetres, the accuracy of multi-GNSS observations carried out in real time as a combination of four global navigation systems, Global Positioning System (GPS), Globalnaja Navigacionnaja Sputnikova Sistema (GLONASS), Galileo and BeiDou, was determined. The article presents the results of empirical research conducted at four reference points. The test observations were made in variants comprising measurements based on: GPS, GPS and GLONASS systems, GPS, GLONASS and Galileo systems, GPS, GLONASS, Galileo and BeiDou systems. For each adopted solution, daily measurement sessions were performed using the RTK technique. The test results were subjected to accuracy analyses. Based on the obtained results, it was found that GNSS measurements should be carried out with the use of three navigation systems (GPS, GLONASS, Galileo), as an optimal solution for the needs of continuous geodetic monitoring in the area of the study.

Proposed single-zone map projection system for Turkey

The coordinate base of the maps or sheets produced is the Universal Transversal Mercator (UTM) conformal projection, and it is not possible to work in a single coordinate system in Turkey. Therefore, a transition from UTM to other conformal projections is required. For the countries extending in an east–west UTM zone width like Turkey, composite projection (CP), a double standard paralleling Lambert Conformal Conic (LCC) and double map projections (DP) are used widely. However, this process causes increase in working load and processing errors by users. This study aims to determine a common projection system that can be used in the whole country. In this context, a composite projection from UTM and LCC projection has been defined for the first time. According to the results obtained, map projection CP with the least distortion values in both east–west and north–south directions has been chosen. With the CP selection, a single coordinate system has been determined for medium- and large-scale maps. Projection correction formulas, scale factor and false origin have been determined for map coordinates in CP. These distortions are obtained with a difference of less than 1 cm for 1 km long sides and less than 0.003″ for the azimuth value of this side, when the correction formulas are used.

Determining the area corrections affecting the map areas in GIS applications

Nowadays, there are many area-based Geographic Information Systems (GIS) applications such as real estate valuation, land tax, farming support and cost–benefit analysis. Areas used in such applications are calculated by means of two-dimensional plane geometry. However, the computed area value is not the exact area value in the terrain. In order to calculate the exact area value of a parcel, area corrections due to various factors must be taken into account. These factors are selection of projection, slope of the terrain, elevation of the terrain and scale of the map. Selection of projection and slope of terrain are available; elevation of the terrain and scale of map are not available in all GIS software. In this study, the effect of area corrections on the area value calculated from the map is examined with sample applications and the results are presented to the GIS users. According to the results, GIS users should select the equal area projection. In addition, scale of map, elevation and slope of terrain should be taken into account in the area calculation where land measurements are not possible.

The method of detection and localization of configuration defects in geodetic networks by means of Tikhonov regularization

In adjusted geodetic networks, cases of local configuration defects (defects in the geometric structure of the network due to missing data or errors in point numbering) can be encountered, which lead to the singularity of the normal equation system in the least-squares procedure. Numbering errors in observation sets cause the computer program to define the network geometry incorrectly. Another cause of a defect may be accidental omission of certain data records, causing local indeterminacy or lowering of local reliability rates in a network. Obviously, the problem of a configuration defect may be easily detectable in networks with a small number of points. However, it becomes a real problem in large networks, where manual checking of all data becomes a very expensive task. The paper presents a new strategy for the detection of configuration defects with the use of the Tikhonov regularization method. The method was implemented in 1992 in the GEONET system (www.geonet.net.pl).

Detection of periodic displacements of shell structures with edges using spline surfaces, meshes and point clouds

This research paper tackles the problem of determining displacements of complex-shaped shell structures, measured periodically using laser scanning. Point clouds obtained during different measurement epochs can be compared with each other directly or they can be converted into continuous models in the form of a triangle mesh or smooth patches (spline functions). The accuracy of the direct comparison of point clouds depends on the scanning density, while the accuracy of comparing the point cloud to the model depends on approximation errors that are formed during its creation. Modelling using triangle meshes flattens the local structure of the object compared to the spline model. However, if the shell has edges in its structure, their exact representation by spline models is impossible due to the undulations of functions along them. Edges can also be distorted by the mesh model by their chamfering with transverse triangles. These types of surface modelling errors can lead to the generation of pseudo-deformation of the structure, which is difficult to distinguish from real deformation. In order to assess the possibility of correct determination of deformation using the above-mentioned methods, laser scanning of a complex shell structure in two epochs was performed. Then, modelling and comparison of the results of periodic measurements were carried out. As a result of the research, advantages and disadvantages of each method were identified. It was noticed that none of the methods made it possible to correctly represent all deformations while suppressing pseudo-deformation. However, the combination of their best qualities made it possible to determine the actual deformation of the structure.

Possibility of applying geoinformation multiagent optimisation for planning the development of road networks

In recent years, computational intelligence has been used to solve optimisation problems. An innovative direction in the development of artificial intelligence methods is multiagent methods of intellectual optimisation, which simulate the collective behaviour of insects, animals and other living beings. It indicates the effectiveness of their behaviour, and hence the effectiveness of these methods, and the ability to be involved in solving applied problems. This article is devoted to the study of the development of road transport networks using the metaheuristic ant method of optimisation based on a number of data. The initial data were geospatial layers of information on slope steepness, engineering structures, forests, perennials, land development and hydrographic objects. The parameters of the behaviour of the studied method under different conditions and volumes of input geospatial data are experimentally established. The Max–Min method of multiagent optimisation is modified. The proposed modification takes into account the functional distance – the coefficient of the complexity of the route, which affects its length. This modification had an effective influence on the behaviour of ants and the choice of optimal routes, taking into account the terrain as one of the factors. The result of the advancement is an informational system, which is capable of formulating flexible options for passing optimal alternative routes between specified settlements.

Gauss-Markov model with random parameters to adjust results of surveys of geodetic control networks

Alignment of an engineering object project in the field is always conducted at the points of the geodetic control network, the coordinates of which are determined on the basis of the results of its elements survey and with connection to the national spatial reference system. The points of the national spatial reference system determined on the basis of previous surveys have specified coordinates with adequate accuracy, which is included in their covariance matrix. The coordinates of the geodetic control network points are determined more accurately than the points of the national spatial reference system and this means that the results of surveys of the geodetic control network have to be adequately incorporated into the coordinates of the reference points. In order to perform this incorporation, it may be assumed that the coordinates of the reference points are random, that is, they have a covariance matrix, which should be used in the process of adjusting the results of the geodetic control network observation. This research paper presents the principles for the estimation of the Gauss-Markov model parameters applied in case of those geodetic control networks in which the coordinates of the reference points have random character. On the basis of the observation equations δ + AX = L for the geodetic control network and using the weighting matrix P and the matrix of conditional covariances (P −1 + AC X A T ) for the observation vector L, the parameter vector X is estimated in the form of the derived formula X ^ = ( C X − 1 + A T PA ) − 1 A T P ⋅ L {\bf{\hat X}} = {\left( {{\bf{C}}_X^{ - 1} + {{\bf{A}}^T}{\bf{PA}}} \right)^{ - 1}}{{\bf{A}}^T}{\bf{P}} \cdot {\bf{L}} . The verification of these estimation principles has been illustrated by the example of a fragment of a levelling geodetic control network consisting of three geodetic control points and two reference points of the national spatial reference system. The novel feature of the proposed solution is the application of covariance matrices of the reference point coordinates to adjust the results of the survey of geodetic control networks and to determine limit standard deviations for the estimated coordinates of geodetic control network points.

Monitoring and forecasting spatio-temporal LULC for Akure rainforest habitat in Nigeria

For several decades, Nigerian cities have been experiencing a decline in their biodiversity resulting from rapid land use land cover (LULC) changes. Anticipating short/long-term consequences, this study hypothesised the effects of LULC variables in Akure, a developing tropical rainforest city in south-west Nigeria. A differentiated trend of urban LULC was determined over a period covering 1999–2019. The study showed the net change for bare land, built-up area, cultivated land, forest cover and grassland over the two decades to be −292.68 km2, +325.79 km2, +88.65 km2, +8.62 km2 and −131.38 km2, respectively. With a projected population increase of about 46.85%, the study identified that the built-up land cover increased from 1.98% to 48.61%. The change detection analysis revealed an upsurge in built area class. The expansion indicated a significant inverse correlation with the bare land class (50.97% to 8.66%) and grassland class (36.33% to 17.94%) over the study period. The study observed that the land consumption rate (in hectares) steadily increased by 0.00505, 0.00362 and 0.0687, in the year 1999, 2009 and 2019, respectively. This rate of increase is higher than studies conducted in more populated cities. The Cellular Automata (CA) Markovian analysis predicted a 37.92% growth of the study area will be the built-up area in the next two decades (2039). The 20-year prediction for Akure built-up area is within range when compared to CA Markov prediction for other cities across the globe. The findings of this study will guide future planning for rational LULC evaluation.

Development of a UAV-based system for the semi-automatic estimation of the volume of earthworks

One of the challenges faced by surveyors in acquisition of accurate spatial data for mining applications is the risk involved in acquiring data in rugged terrains and difficult or inaccessible areas. With the advent of modern technology, accurate geospatial data can now be safely obtained for proper mining documentation periodically. The use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) for data acquisition in mine surveying has been a viable means of obtaining reliable geospatial data rapidly and efficiently. The main goal of this study is to develop a semi-automatic UAV-based system for the acquisition of spatial data required for the estimation of the volume of earthworks. A DJI Phantom 4 quadcopter was used for the acquisition of image data of the project site, while the images were processed into a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) using Pix4Dmapper v2.0.1, which was then imported into the MATLAB-based system developed for the automatic estimation of the volume of earthworks. The volume obtained from the automated system was thus compared with the volume obtained directly from the Pix4Dmapper software, having specified a contour interval of 1 and an allowable error rate of ±3% as the standard error. While ±1.02% error was observed in the volume estimated using the Pix4Dmapper, the developed automated system yielded an estimated precision of ±0.81% in its volume estimation, which proves to be more robust for automatic volume estimation in terms of accuracy and precision.

Legal aspects of registration the time of cadastral data creation or modification

In Poland, the cadastre is the basic register which is the source of information on cadastral entities and their property. Therefore, it should constitute a reliable source of information in the scope of establishing the range of law, its nature, but also the subject of its ownership. However, it is necessary to be able to not only check the current information on the legal status and its scope, but also review past statuses or determine the rights that will influence real estate in the future. The cadastre and related rights are changing very dynamically over time, and each state has a very strict reference to the previous state. Therefore, in order to manage real estate in the most effective way, it is necessary to record temporal attributes of cadastre objects.The main objective of this paper is to define the legal issues related to the possibility of registration at the time of creation or modification of object in the Polish cadastre. This paper includes analyses of both Polish legal regulations and European standards and norms. Moreover, the article presents the results of comparative analyses concerning the data model of cadastre and INSPIRE and Land Administration Domain Model (LADM) data models for the theme cadastral parcel in terms of temporal aspect.