How Universal Is Media Entertainment, Really? On the Enriching Potential of Cross-Cultural Approaches for Existing Entertainment Scholarship

The current chapter focuses on the (cross-)cultural appeal of existing entertainment theories, showcasing the meager evidence that exists with respect to their universality. The central argument throughout the chapter is that most entertainment theories have originated in the Western world and little has so far been done to apply them to the much larger rest of the world. The rest of the world has shown to be profoundly different, however, with respect to various dimensions of human behavior and cognition, including self-concepts, emotion appraisal and display, valued affect, thinking styles, values, and well-being maxims. The chapter scrutinizes five pertinent entertainment theories for their ability to explain this cultural variation. It suggests the inclusion of fruitful macro- and micro-level concepts from cross-cultural psychology and intercultural communication to increase their global explanatory power. The main aim of the current chapter is to spark an overdue (cross-)cultural evolution of media entertainment scholarship.

Only Project

The kind of truth that is usually approached in psychology is of correspondence: whether a hypothesis corresponds with an aspect of behavior or physiology. But two further kinds of truth are important: a truth of coherence of several co-occurring processes, as instantiated in simulations, and a truth that is personal, as can occur when people come to know something important about others or themselves. The aim of literature that is artistic is to explore truths of all three kinds in an integrated way, so that deeper recognition may sometimes be achieved. A novel that enables us to understand the psychological principle of projection, in this way, is Apple Tree Yard, by Louise Doughty. As readers run the simulation of this novel in their minds, not only is it entertaining, as the better kinds of detective stories and courtroom dramas can be, but also it enables readers to understand—and resonate personally with—what can happen when a person becomes caught up in a projection motivated by a phantasy.

Binge-Watching as Case of Escapist Entertainment Use

Although the concept of escapism is widely used in entertainment research, it lacks theoretical and empirical differentiation. Based on the transactional model of stress and coping, we extend previous attempts to conceptualize escapism as a form of emotion-focused avoidance coping. In contrast to the primarily negative connotation of escapism found in prior research, we propose that escapist entertainment use may be a functional coping strategy in some situations and may thus have beneficial effects on the well-being of media users. To develop and illustrate our perspective, we turn to binge-watching as a prominent example of escapist entertainment use. We show exemplarily how escapist binge-watching can contribute to recovery from stress and close our chapter with reflections on how to further develop escapism research.

Advances in Research on the Model of Intuitive Morality and Exemplars (MIME)

This chapter describes the model of intuitive morality and exemplars (MIME), which examines connections between moral judgment and exposure to narrative media. The MIME explicates distinct, a priori–defined domains of moral intuitions that cut across cultural boundaries and identifies underlying processes that shape related social perceptions to describe how media and moral judgment are intertwined. The model’s dual-process perspective suggests some moral judgments are determined by quick gut reflexes and others by reflective deliberation. The MIME’s multistage process contains short-term and long-term components. The short-term component describes how exemplars that prime moral intuitions affect the appraisal of media content, which then prompts selective exposure to media that upholds primed intuitions. The long-term component describes how aggregate patterns of exposure to media that upholds primed intuitions encourages further (mass) production of content featuring those intuitions. This reciprocal process describes how media systems and audiences influence the salience of one another’s moral intuitions.

Stories Enlarge the Experience of Self

Temporarily expanded boundaries of the self (TEBOTS) proposes underlying motivations for engaging with stories. TEBOTS points out that fundamental human drives for agency, autonomy, and connectedness are imperfectly attainable. As a result, human beings turn to transcendent experiences that offer self-expansion, especially engagement with mediated worlds and the stories and characters they provide. TEBOTS provides unique hypotheses about how the self-concept relates to the selection, processing, and effects of media entertainment. Confirmatory evidence for TEBOTS shows that threats to the self can increase responsiveness to narratives, and that effects are attributable to a boundary expansion mechanism. Recent studies demonstrate that boundary expansion during media use can facilitate positive outgroup perceptions and attitude change. The TEBOTS framework also provides testable propositions regarding the influence of life stressors such as finance, health, and relationships on narrative engagement and enjoyment, carrying potential implications for narrative influence on stressed populations.

Entertainment in Virtual Reality and Beyond

Recently, virtual reality (VR) has emerged, but a conceptual framework explicating potential foundational pillars of VR entertainment is still missing. The present chapter aims to fill this gap by introducing, based on a review of the related literature, such a conceptual framework. It proposes that the typical VR experience is characterized by the interaction of three core mechanisms or affordances (that, albeit in different constellations and to a different degree, also underlie other media channels), namely a profound sense of embodiment, spatial presence or a sense of physical co-location of other entities and events, and users’ cognitive distancing. It argues that these factors jointly affect the extent users experience VR as immediately self-relevant and consequential. By linking these three foundational pillars of the VR experience to users’ entertainment experience and related research on media entertainment, it derives five propositions about entertainment in VR (and other channels that support these affordances).

Entertainment and Resonance

This chapter aims to differentiate between two kinds of media use experiences that in the past twenty some years have uniformly been labeled entertainment experiences. In the background of four identified fundamental assumptions in entertainment theory (entertainment as reception phenomenon, disparity between what media users want and what they should want, entertainment between approaching and avoiding affective states, entertainment as self-transcendence) media experiences are dichotomized between those that serve users’ hedonic motivations, needs, and interests and others, more fundamental experiences of resonance (which in the recent past have often been labeled eudaimonic) that connect users to the content of a media narrative and ultimately changes them. The argument is made here for communication scholars and media psychologists to refer to entertainment experiences only in the first case in order to be less vague and ambiguous in explicating entertainment theory.

News as Entertainment Format

The informative value of news has often been the focus of mass communication research, but individuals do tune into the news for entertainment purposes. In addition, news organizations frequently add entertainment elements into news stories to increase audience interest. Considering both of these factors, theorizing about the entertainment processes (e.g., appreciation, enjoyment, and suspense) that occur during news consumption is necessary to understand audience behavior. This chapter investigates factors that influence entertainment processes during news consumption. Two entertainment theories in particular (affective disposition theory and the affective news extended model) are reviewed to understand how affective responses influence enjoyment of news. It organizes existing research on affective responses and entertainment processes into two categories focusing on news event characteristics (i.e., elements that journalists cannot change) and message design principles that journalists create or edit. Areas for future research are provided.

Cinematic Entertainment

Despite claims that “cinema is dead” or that it only interests nostalgic old-timers, statistics indicate a global increase in theater attendance. Not only is moviegoing still one of the favorite forms of entertainment, but it especially appeals to young people. Moreover, communication research seems to have neglected cinema, but the relationship between modern-day teenagers and the silver screen needs to be observed. This chapter reports the results of a cross-cultural study based on the uses and gratifications paradigm with youngsters from eight European countries. It presents their cinematographic uses and consumption, their motivations for going to the movies, and their preferences and conceptions regarding different movie traditions. The study also performs cross-cultural contrasts to reveal more about the impact of regional, national, and global forces on the psychological relationship between today’s teenagers and cinema.

Interactivity as Demand

The interactive nature of video games has perpetually drawn the focus of game developers and game scholars alike—the former eager to create immersive and involving digital worlds to shock and awe players, and the latter eager to understand the potential for powerful effects stemming from this immersion and involvement. Yet as video games evolve in terms of their technology and their content, the relationship between the player and the system becomes increasingly complex. This dialogue demands near-constant attention from the players, and these demands exist on at least four dimensions: cognitive, emotional, physical, and social. In the present chapter, these four demands are explicated, theoretically and empirically positioned as entertaining in their own right, and discussed as important mediators of media entertainment experiences.