Advancing an Ecosystem Approach in the Gulf of Maine

<i>Abstract</i>.—This paper briefly summarizes some of the regional developments and advances in the theme “Tools for Integrated Policy and Management” that were presented at the October 2009 Gulf of Maine Science Symposium held in St. Andrews, New Brunswick. Tools for integrated policy and management meet a wide range of functions and originate from a variety of fields, from the physical and biological sciences to social sciences and organizational studies. Some of the tools presented at the 2009 Gulf of Maine symposium are discussed in this paper. Knowledge gaps still exist regarding impacts of development and industrial activities, which becomes apparent when trying to evaluate and quantify cumulative impacts. Geographic information system-based tools and elements of marine spatial planning such as human use mapping can help establish better cumulative impact assessments. While it is recognized that advances in integrated policy and management have occurred since the previous (1996) Gulf of Maine science symposium, evaluation of that progress is still in development. Tools such as state of the environment reporting, integrated assessments/ ecosystem overviews, frameworks for implementation of ecosystem-based management (EBM), or approaches developed by the EBM Tools Network all assist in measuring and evaluating our progress towards full implementation of an ecosystem approach within the context of management activities and actions.

Advancing an Ecosystem Approach in the Gulf of Maine

<i>Abstract</i>.—The Gulf of Maine (GoM) may have defined borders to some, but to the Canadian fishing industry, it carries a flow of larvae, nutrients, and other resources that help sustain the fishery from Georges Bank to the West Scotian Slope to the Bay of Fundy and all points in between. The GoM provides a source of wealth to people and communities, as well as supplying what may be one of the last natural foods on the planet. The fishing industry has been using the GoM for centuries, yet it is only recently that monitoring and data gathering has been taking place. In my opinion, we can extract much more value from the fisheries than we presently do. If the fisheries resource of the GoM is not delivering its full potential, who is ultimately responsible and accountable? In the past decade, transboundary groundfish resources from Georges Bank have been successfully managed through the Transboundary Management Guidance Committee. We can improve decision making even further in a greater ecosystem context, recognizing that decisions have to be made with the information available. An ecosystem approach to fisheries proposes a pragmatic view based on assessing the risk of not meeting agreed objectives.

Advancing an Ecosystem Approach in the Gulf of Maine

<i>Abstract</i> .—Because of partial recirculation and steep bottom slopes, the Gulf of Maine (GoM) contains steep environmental gradients in both space and time. I focus, in particular, on optical properties associated with both resources and risks. The GoM estuary-shelf systems differ from those whose fine sediments are trapped behind barrier bars; in the GoM, nepheloid layers prevail over a wide range of depths, and onshore-offshore turbidity gradients at a given water depth are also steep. Turbidity reduces predation risk. Three crustacean species that are major fish forages respond to the strong environmental gradients in resources and risks by migrating seasonally both horizontally and vertically. Northern shrimp (also known as pink shrimp) <i>Pandalus borealis</i> , sevenspine bay shrimp <i>Crangon septemspinosa</i> , and the most common mysid shrimp in the GoM, <i>Neomysis americana</i> , share both stalked eyes that appear capable of detecting polarized light and statocysts. This pair of features likely confers sun-compass navigational ability, facilitating use of multiple habitats. All three species converge on a shallow-water bloom at depths <100 m of the western GoM shelf in December–March, well before the basin-wide, climatological spring bloom in April. In addition to reaching abundant food resources, I propose that they are also using optical protection, quantified as the integral of the beam attenuation coefficient from the surface to the depth that they occupy during daylight. Spring immigration into, and fall emigration from, estuaries appear to be common in GoM sevenspine bay shrimp and <i>N. americana</i> , out of phase with their populations south of New England and with turbidity differences a likely cause. Migration studies that include measurements of turbidity are needed, however, to test the strength of the effect of optical protection on habitat use by all three species. Simultaneous sampling of estuaries and the adjacent shelf, together with trace-element tracer studies, would be very useful to resolve timing and extent of mass migrations, which likely are sensitive to turbidity change resulting from climate change. These migrations present special challenges to ecosystem-based management by using so many different habitats.

https://fisheries.org/doi/9781934874301-ch19

<i>Abstract</i> .—The Gulf of Maine’s seafloor provides a wide array of valuable ecosystem services, including provision of habitat for commercially and ecologically important mammals, seabirds, fish, and invertebrates. Implementing ecosystem-based management will require improved information about the habitats of economically and ecologically important species and the impacts of different human activities, such as fish harvesting, offshore energy development, and shipping, to balance these competing needs. Currently, there is limited high resolution seabed substrate information in the Gulf of Maine, especially in the U.S. portion, because of the high cost of multi-beam echo sounder surveys. Moreover, this lack of coverage limits the ability of managers to use seafloor substrate information in ecosystem management activities, such as fisheries management, that require more holistic coverage of the bioregion. Therefore, the potential need for seafloor mapping in this region is enormous given the value of accurate seafloor information to managers in charge of minimizing impacts to and sustaining the ecosystem services provided by benthic habitat in the Gulf of Maine.

Advancing an Ecosystem Approach in the Gulf of Maine

<i>Abstract</i> .—Here we summarize presentations given at the theme session “Structure and Function of the Gulf of Maine System” of the 2009 Gulf of Maine Symposium— Advancing Ecosystem Research for the Future of the Gulf, covering a broad spectrum of multidisciplinary research underway in one of the world’s most intensively studied marine systems. Our objective was to attempt a synthesis of the current ecological and oceanographic understanding of the Gulf of Maine and, in particular, to document progress in these areas since the 1996 Gulf of Maine Ecosystem Dynamics Symposium more than a decade earlier. Presentations at the session covered issues ranging from habitat structure and function, biodiversity, population structure, trophic ecology, the intersection of the biological, chemical and physical oceanography of the region, and the dynamics of economically important species. Important strides in characterizing the broader dimensions of biodiversity in the region, the establishment of new sampling programs and the availability of new sensor arrays, and the renewed emphasis synthesis and integration to meet the emerging needs for ecosystem-based management in the gulf have all contributed to a deepened appreciation of its dynamical structure. The critical importance of the ecosystem goods and services provided by the gulf, and the factors affecting the sustainable delivery of these services, was clearly demonstrated in the course of the session. The papers presented at the session made it clear how far we have come and how far we need to go to ensure the sustainable delivery of these services into the future.

Advancing an Ecosystem Approach in the Gulf of Maine

<i>Abstract</i>.—Zooplankton communities perform a critical role as secondary producers in marine ecosystems. They are vulnerable to climate-induced changes in the marine environment, including temperature, stratification, and circulation, but the effects of these changes are difficult to discern without sustained ocean monitoring. The physical, chemical, and biological environment of the Gulf of Maine, including Georges Bank, is strongly influenced by inflow from the Scotian Shelf and through the Northeast Channel, and thus observations both in the Gulf of Maine and in upstream regions are necessary to understand plankton variability and change in the Gulf of Maine. Large-scale, quasi synoptic plankton surveys have been performed in the Gulf of Maine since Bigelow’s work at the beginning of the 20th century. More recently, ongoing plankton monitoring efforts include Continuous Plankton Recorder sampling in the Gulf of Maine and on the Scotian Shelf, U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service’s MARMAP (Marine Resources Monitoring, Assessment, and Prediction) and EcoMon (Ecosystem Monitoring) programs sampling the northeast U.S. Continental Shelf, including the Gulf of Maine, and Fisheries and Oceans Canada’s Atlantic Zone Monitoring Program on the Scotian Shelf and in the eastern Gulf of Maine. Here, we review and compare past and ongoing zooplankton monitoring programs in the Gulf of Maine region, including Georges Bank and the western Scotian Shelf, to facilitate retrospective analysis and broadscale synthesis of zooplankton dynamics in the Gulf of Maine. Additional sustained sampling at greater-than-monthly frequency at selected sites in the Gulf of Maine would be necessary to detect changes in phenology (i.e. seasonal timing of biological events). Sustained zooplankton sampling in critical nearshore fish habitats and in key feeding areas for upper trophic level organisms, such as marine mammals and seabirds, would yield significant insights into their dynamics. The ecosystem dynamics of the Gulf of Maine are strongly influenced by large-scale forcing and variability in upstream inflow. Improved coordination of sampling and data analysis among monitoring programs, effective data management, and use of multiple modeling approaches will all enhance the mechanistic understanding of the structure and function of the Gulf of Maine pelagic ecosystem.

Advancing an Ecosystem Approach in the Gulf of Maine

<i>Abstract</i>.—Numerous studies have examined the dynamics of zooplankton in the Gulf of Maine. Here the authors reanalyze relationships found in these prior studies, using updated data, with the goal of evaluating previously identified zooplankton– environment linkages. These reanalyses support the finding that major changes occurred in the zooplankton community during the late 1980s and again in the late 1990s. Evidence for a broader change in the ecosystem during these periods and mechanisms responsible for changes in the zooplankton are discussed. In general, the results of previous studies are upheld, but it is shown that the relationship between the environmental indicators and zooplankton change through time. This result implies that all data collected in the Gulf of Maine must be considered within a historical context and that the observed environmental–zooplankton linkages are still not well understood. It is possible that changes in the seasonal cycle or shifts in the pressures systems responsible for the North Atlantic oscillation result in nonstationary environmental–zooplankton relations. These results indicate that a mechanistic understanding is required to explain the documented environment–zooplankton linkages rather than correlative explanations. Since the causes of the late-1980s and late-1990s regime shifts are still unclear, future ecosystem-based management in the Gulf of Maine must be supported by continued observation and analysis to identify ecosystem changes soon after they occur. Scenario-driven modeling also is needed to provide guidance as to how the ecosystem will respond to future changes in zooplankton abundance and community structure.

Advancing an Ecosystem Approach in the Gulf of Maine

<i>Abstract</i> .—There have been significant advances in our understanding of the Gulf of Maine, and federal, provincial, and state jurisdictions in Canada and the United States have moved forward with ecosystem approaches to management. The international context for an ecosystem based approach has evolved, and there have been legislative changes in both the United States and Canada. There has also been an evolution of the public perspective with respect to the need for enhanced stewardship in the face of ecological change. There is increasing awareness of the need for development of an integrated approach to the management of multiple human activities in relation to a more diverse set of objectives that include a higher standard of ecological integrity and diverse aspects of sustainability, in a changing environment.

Advancing an Ecosystem Approach in the Gulf of Maine

<i>Abstract</i> .—In a collaborative project with a number of New England commercial fishermen, zooplankton was sampled two to three times a month between 2003 and 2005 at the GoMOOS (Gulf of Maine Ocean Observing System) Buoy “B” and between 2003 and 2008 at a station on Jeffreys Ledge in the western Gulf of Maine. Additionally, during 2007 and 2008 zooplankton and ichthyoplankton were sampled semimonthly at stations located in Massachusetts Bay and Ipswich Bay, New Hampshire. The authors report here on seasonal and interannual patterns in biomass, diversity, and abundance in the zooplankton at the Jeffreys Ledge station and in the ichthyoplankton at the Massachusetts and Ipswich Bay stations. Notable is the dominance of <i>Calanus finmarchicus </i> on Jeffreys Ledge and the dramatic decline in summer abundance of this species between 2003 and 2005, perhaps related to a shift to lower salinity water during this same period. Interannual differences in timing of peak abundance, and in species dominance of ichthyoplankton, were observed between 2007 and 2008. While these time series provide information and insight about change in the coastal planktonic communities in the western Gulf of Maine, currently there are no observing programs that sample coastal communities at frequency sufficient to show seasonal and interannual change in this region.

Advancing an Ecosystem Approach in the Gulf of Maine

<i>Abstract</i> .—An ecosystem-based framework for managing the Gulf of Maine ecosystem needs to include the long-distance migrant species that use the system for only a part of their annual cycle. The numbers of cetaceans and seabirds in this category greatly outnumber those that breed within the gulf and risk being neglected in any framework that does not consider them explicitly. I review the role of the gulf in the life cycles of five species of cetacean, 18 seabirds or shorebirds, and five species of fish; the familiar iconic species, such as North Atlantic right whale <i>Eubalaena glacialis</i> , bluefin tuna <i>Thunnus thynnus</i> , phalaropes (red-necked phalarope <i>Phalaropus lobatus </i> and red phalarope <i>P. fulicaria</i> ), and sandpipers <i>Calidris </i> spp., are flagships for many more species for which the Gulf of Maine plays an irreplaceable part in the annual cycle.