Differential Reactions to Male and Female Gender-Role Violations: Testing the Sexual Orientation Hypothesis

Three studies investigated inferences about physically androgynous (PA) people. In Experiments 1 and 2, participants rated the personality, gender-role behavior, occupation, and sexual orientation of male, female, and PA targets in a within-subjects design. Targets were presented in color photos in Experiment 1 and in verbal descriptions in Experiment 2. Experiment 3 used verbal descriptions in a between-subjects design. In all three studies, participants inferred that the traits and behaviors in the PA targets were less gender-typed than those in the male and female targets. Participants also inferred that the PA targets were more likely to be homosexual and less likely to be heterosexual than the male and female targets. These results indicate that people draw conclusions about psychological characteristics from a person's physical appearance, but challenge Brewer's (1988) and Fiske and Neuberg's (1990) descriptions of how gender affects this process. Assumptions about PA people may also reinforce butch/fem stereotypes of lesbians and gay men.

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Reducing the Cost of Being the Boss: Authentic Leadership Suppresses the Effect of Role Stereotype Conflict on Antisocial Behaviors in Leaders and Entrepreneurs

Frontiers in Psychology ◽

10.3389/fpsyg.2021.760258 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 12 ◽

Author(s):

Lucas Monzani ◽

Guillermo Mateu ◽

Alina S. Hernandez Bark ◽

José Martínez Villavicencio

Keyword(s):

Gender Role ◽

Authentic Leadership ◽

Phase 1 ◽

Female Gender ◽

Male Gender ◽

Female Entrepreneurs ◽

Male And Female ◽

Role Stereotype ◽

Male Gender Role ◽

Economic Behaviors

What drives entrepreneurs to engage in antisocial economic behaviors? Without dismissing entrepreneurs’ agency in their decision-making processes, our study aims to answer this question by proposing that antisocial economic behaviors are a dysfunctional coping mechanism to reduce the psychological tension that entrepreneurs face in their day-to-day activities. Further, given the overlap between the male gender role stereotype and both leader and entrepreneur role stereotypes, this psychological tension should be stronger in female entrepreneurs (or any person who identifies with the female gender role). We argue that besides the well-established female gender role – leader role incongruence, female entrepreneurs also suffer a female gender role – entrepreneur role incongruence. Thus, we predicted that men (or those identifying with the male gender role) or entrepreneurs (regardless of their gender identity) that embrace these roles stereotypes to an extreme, are more likely to engage in antisocial economic behaviors. In this context, the term antisocial economic behaviors refers to cheating or trying to harm competitors’ businesses. Finally, we predicted that embracing an authentic leadership style might mitigate this effect. We tested our predictions in two laboratory studies (Phase 1 and 2). For Phase 1 we recruited a sample of French Business school students (N = 82). For Phase 2 we recruited a sample of Costa Rican male and female entrepreneurs, using male and female managers as reference groups (N = 64). Our results show that authentic leadership reduced the likelihood of entrepreneurs and men of engaging in antisocial economic behaviors such as trying to harm one’s competition or seeking an unfair advantage.

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Gender-role orientation and social expectations regarding female adolescents' coping with developmental tasks 1The preparation of this article was facilitated by a grant from the Swiss National Foundation for young researchers, financed by the local research committee of the University of Fribourg to the first author during her stay at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA. We are grateful to Susan B. Cleary for editing the English version of this article.

Swiss Journal of Psychology ◽

10.1024//1421-0185.58.4.273 ◽

1999 ◽

Vol 58 (4) ◽

pp. 273-286 ◽

Cited By ~ 4

Author(s):

Regula P. Berger ◽

Alexander Grob ◽

August Flammer

Keyword(s):

Gender Role ◽

Female Gender ◽

Role Orientation ◽

Developmental Tasks ◽

Developmental Task ◽

Gender Role Orientation ◽

Research Committee ◽

National Foundation ◽

Normative Expectations ◽

The University

This study focuses on the importance of social developmental expectations, assessed as emotional and cognitive evaluations regarding the timing and the gender-role conformity of normative developmental tasks. Two central questions were raised. First, to what degree do the timing and the gender-role conformity affect the adults' expectations? Second, how much does the adults' own gender-role orientation (GRO), classified as traditional vs. liberal, affect their expectations? A 4 (timing modus) × 2 (developmental task) × 2 (gender-role conformity)-factorial design was administered to a sample of 140 adults of both sexes, 20 to 81 years old. Coping in time and with gender-role typical career received the most approval. Typical developmental tasks were more approved by persons with a traditional than with a liberal GRO. However, the evaluation of non-typical developmental tasks was not affected by the GRO. The possibility of a shift in normative expectations toward more liberal, diverse, and self-defined female gender-roles is discussed.

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Gender Role Attitudes of Male and Female College Students and Career Attitude Maturity : The Mediating Effects of General Self-Efficacy

The Journal of Career Education Research ◽

10.32341/jcer.2017.12.30.4.113 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 30 (4) ◽

pp. 113-130

Author(s):

Hyang Hee Kim ◽

Baole Choi

Keyword(s):

College Students ◽

Gender Role ◽

Self Efficacy ◽

Gender Role Attitudes ◽

Female College Students ◽

Mediating Effects ◽

Male And Female ◽

Female College ◽

General Self Efficacy

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Measuring Gender Role Conflict, Internalized Stigma, and Racial and Sexual Identity in Behaviorally Bisexual Black Men

Archives of Sexual Behavior ◽

10.1007/s10508-021-01925-w ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Homero E. del Pino ◽

W. Neil Steers ◽

Martin Lee ◽

Jason McCuller ◽

Ron D. Hays ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Sexual Orientation ◽

Gender Role ◽

Black Men ◽

Role Conflict ◽

Gender Role Conflict ◽

Internalized Homophobia ◽

Two Factors ◽

Race And Sexuality ◽

Simple Factor ◽

Sex With Men

AbstractBlack men who have sex with men and women (BMSMW) experience pressure to fill hypermasculine ideals and may not identify with “gay” cultural norms. Existing measures of gender role expectations and internalized homophobia are not culturally appropriate for BMSMW. Researchers generally measure categorical identification with race, gender, and sexual orientation groups separately, whereas BMSMW may identify with multiple categories. We modified the Gender Role Conflict Scale to create the M-GRCS and the Internalized Homophobia Scale to include biphobia (Internalized Bi/Homophobia Scale, IBHS). To examine identification at the intersection of race, gender, and sexual orientation, we created 11 Integrated Race and Sexuality Scale (IRSS) items. With data from 429 BMSMW, we conducted exploratory factor analysis of the 59 items using categorical principal axis factoring with unweighted least squares extraction and Promax factor rotation. We created simple-summated multi-item scales and evaluated their construct validity. The rotated solution yielded four factors with 47 items and a simple factor structure: M-GRCS defined two factors (α = .93 for restricted emotionality/affection; .87 for success/power/competition); the IBHS (α = .89) and IRSS (α = .74) each defined a single factor. The IRSS factor was positively correlated with the Lukwago Racial Pride Scale, r(417) = .40. The IBHS factor was negatively correlated with the IRSS factor, r(414) = − .22. The two M-GRCS factors suggest that the construct of hypermasculinity impacts BMSMW. The high IBHS reliability indicates that homophobia and biphobia were positively correlated in this sample. These three scales have potential for future studies with BMSMW.

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Recalled and current gender role behavior, gender identity and sexual orientation in adults with Disorders/Differences of Sex Development

Hormones and Behavior ◽

10.1016/j.yhbeh.2016.08.008 ◽

2016 ◽

Vol 86 ◽

pp. 8-20 ◽

Cited By ~ 23

Author(s):

Nina Callens ◽

Maaike Van Kuyk ◽

Jet H. van Kuppenveld ◽

Stenvert L.S. Drop ◽

Peggy T. Cohen-Kettenis ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Sexual Orientation ◽

Gender Identity ◽

Gender Role ◽

Role Behavior ◽

Sex Development ◽

Gender Role Behavior ◽

Differences Of Sex Development

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Judgments of Sexism: A Comparison of the Subtlety of Sexism Measures and Sources of Variability in Judgments of Sexism

Psychology of Women Quarterly ◽

10.1111/j.1471-6402.2005.00240.x ◽

2005 ◽

Vol 29 (4) ◽

pp. 406-411 ◽

Cited By ~ 46

Author(s):

Janet K. Swim ◽

Robyn Mallett ◽

Yvonne Russo-Devosa ◽

Charles Stangor

Keyword(s):

Gender Role ◽

Psychology Students ◽

Male And Female ◽

Traditional Gender Role ◽

Sources Of Variation ◽

Unwanted Sexual Attention ◽

Scale Usage ◽

Sexist Beliefs ◽

Role Behaviors

We compared the subtlety of four measures of sexism and sources of variation in male and female psychology students' judgments that beliefs from these scales and everyday behaviors were sexist. Participants judged traditional gender role and hostile sexist beliefs as more sexist than benevolent and modern sexist beliefs, indicating the latter were more subtle measures of sexism. Participants also judged traditional gender role behaviors as more sexist than unwanted sexual attention, suggesting the latter may less readily be identified as sexist. Variation in judgments of beliefs as sexist was related to differences in likelihood of endorsing such beliefs. This relation fully accounted for the tendency for men to be less likely to judge beliefs as sexist in comparison to women. Endorsement of Modern and Hostile Sexist beliefs was related to judgments of behaviors as sexist. The implications of the results for scale usage and identifying sexist behavior are discussed.

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Chronic physical stress differences between genders in a military training on the Amazon jungle

Comparative Exercise Physiology ◽

10.3920/cep140019 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 11 (1) ◽

pp. 17-21

Author(s):

Y.R. de Souza ◽

F.B. Feitosa

Keyword(s):

Plasma Levels ◽

Scientific Literature ◽

Military Training ◽

Female Gender ◽

Physical Stress ◽

Male Gender ◽

Normal Range ◽

Male And Female ◽

Normal Limits ◽

Before And After

This study aimed to investigate the gender difference in the manifestation of physical stress in a strenuous military training on Amazon jungle, using alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), creatine kinase (CK) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) markers, measured before and after an adaptation to jungle training. The sample consisted of 49 military volunteers, 35 male and 14 female, recently moved to the Amazon region. All plasma levels rose after the training. Serum ALT (male and female) and AST (male and female), although borderline, remained within normal limits. Already plasma levels of CK (both male and female) and LDH (male and female) largely exceeded the normal range. The average of all markers listed in female gender remained below the levels of the male gender. However, significant differences in biomarkers ALT, AST and CK between genders were found. The study points out that, in a jungle environment, biometric markers ALT, AST, CK and LDH are efficient for monitoring chronic physical stress in both genders, when used in combination. The influence of the weather on the occurrence of physical stress in unacclimated people of both genders, and the lower responses in the levels of ALT, AST, LDH and CK in females were discussed basing on the scientific literature.

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