An assessment of the sources of dietary salt in a British population

1987 ◽  
Vol 72 (1) ◽  
pp. 95-102 ◽  
Author(s):  
C. P. Sanchez-Castillo ◽  
S. Warrender ◽  
T. P. Whitehead ◽  
W. P. T. James
Keyword(s):  
Salt Intake ◽  
Lithium Carbonate ◽  
Table Salt ◽  
Dietary Salt ◽  
Men And Women ◽  
Dietary Salt Intake ◽  
Salt Consumption ◽  
Chloride Excretion ◽  
The Individual

1. An epidemiological study was conducted in the market town of March, Cambridgeshire, to assess the quantitative importance of cooking and table salt to total dietary salt intake by the use of a fused mixture of lithium carbonate and sodium chloride. 2. Men and women aged 20–60 participated in a 12 day study with sequential 24 h urine collections to assess salt sources over a 7 day period. 3. Total salt consumption estimated from urinary chloride excretion amounted to 10.6 ± 0.55 (sem) g in 33 men and 7.4 ± 0.29 (sem) g in 50 women. The cooking salt eaten was only 0.45 ± 0.09 (sem) g in men and women, with men eating more table salt (0.77 g/day) than women (0.46 g/day). 4. Discretionary sources, i.e. cooking and table salt use, contributed only 15% to the total intake. Salt from manufacturing foods and catering in purchased food therefore provided on average 85% of total salt intake. These results are consistent even when an allowance is made for the slightly poorer pouring quality of the lithium-tagged salt. 5. The importance of food as a source of salt was reflected in the significant relationship between the weight of the individual and the amount of salt eaten (for males P < 0.05 and for females P < 0.001). 6. Cooking salt consumption did not relate to the amount of salt derived from purchased food nor did table salt use relate to the amount of salt in cooked foods. 7. Husbands and wives showed a high correlation in their salt use but the husbands had higher intakes of salt from purchased food and from cooking salt. They also used more table salt than their wives.

SALT INTAKE AND EATING PATTERNS OF INFANTS AND CHILDREN IN RELATION TO BLOOD PRESSURE

PEDIATRICS ◽  
1974 ◽  
Vol 53 (1) ◽  
pp. 115-121
Author(s):  
Malcolm A. Holliday ◽  
Arnold S. Anderson ◽  
Lewis A. Barness ◽  
Richard B. Goldbloom ◽  
James C. Haworth ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
At Risk ◽  
Family History ◽  
Cultural Values ◽  
Salt Intake ◽  
Salt Appetite ◽  
Dietary Salt ◽  
Contributing Factors ◽  
Dietary Salt Intake ◽  
Salt Consumption ◽  
The Individual

Approximately 20% of children in this country are at risk of developing hypertension as adults. The factors that will induce hypertension are genetic, which cannot be modified, and environmental, which can be modified. Genetic factors assist in identifying the population at risk, i.e., family history of hypertension, myocardial infarction, stroke, or renal disease. The population with a negative family history is less at risk. The role of salt intake as an environmental factor in the induction of hypertension has still to be defined. For 80% of the population in this country, present salt intake has not been demonstrated to be harmful, i.e., hypertension has not developed. Salt intake is likely to be only one of the contributing factors for those whose genetic makeup predisposes them to hypertension. Salt appetite for some is an important expression of personal preference in relation to diet; for others, salt-containing foods have important cultural values. Present evidence does not provide a firm basis for advising a change in the dietary salt intake for the general population. There is a reasonable possibility that a low salt intake begun early in life may protect, to some extent, persons at risk from developing hypertension. Salt consumption today is being determined to an increasing degree by food manufacturers and processors and quick-service food suppliers. To the extent that salt is added to a food prior to its being served, the individual has an obligatory rather than a selected intake of salt. The consumption of presalted foods may be producing significant changes in salt intake which are not perceived at this time.

scholarly journals Mean Dietary Salt Intake in Vanuatu: A Population Survey of 755 Participants on Efate Island

Nutrients ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 11 (4) ◽  
pp. 916
Author(s):  
Katherine Paterson ◽  
Nerida Hinge ◽  
Emalie Sparks ◽  
Kathy Trieu ◽  
Joseph Alvin Santos ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Salt Intake ◽  
Urine Samples ◽  
World Health ◽  
Dietary Salt ◽  
Cross Sectional Survey ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Middle Income ◽  
Dietary Salt Intake ◽  
Spot Urine ◽  
Salt Consumption

Non-communicable diseases are responsible for 63% of global deaths, with a higher burden in low- and middle-income countries. Hypertension is the leading cause of cardiovascular-disease-related deaths worldwide, and approximately 1.7 million deaths are directly attributable to excess salt intake annually. There has been little research conducted on the level of salt consumption amongst the population of Vanuatu. Based on data from other Pacific Island countries and knowledge of changing regional diets, it was predicted that salt intake would exceed the World Health Organization’s (WHO) recommended maximum of 5 g per day. The current study aimed to provide Vanuatu with a preliminary baseline assessment of population salt intake on Efate Island. A cross-sectional survey collected demographic, clinical, and urine data from participants aged 18 to 69 years in rural and urban communities on Efate Island in October 2016 and February 2017. Mean salt intake was determined to be 7.2 (SD 2.3) g/day from spot urine samples, and 5.9 (SD 3.6) g/day from 24-h urine samples, both of which exceed the WHO recommended maximum. Based on the spot urine samples, males had significantly higher salt intake than females (7.8 g compared to 6.5 g; p < 0.001) and almost 85% of the population consumed more than the WHO recommended maximum daily amount. A coordinated government strategy is recommended to reduce salt consumption, including fiscal policies, engagement with the food industry, and education and awareness-raising to promote behavior change.

scholarly journals Sodium and Potassium Intake, Knowledge Attitudes and Behaviour Towards Salt Consumption, Amongst Adults in Podgorica, Montenegro

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Lanfranco D'Elia ◽  
Mina Brajovic ◽  
Aleksandra Klisic ◽  
Joao Breda ◽  
Jo Jewell ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Response Rate ◽  
Salt Intake ◽  
Adult Population ◽  
Dietary Salt ◽  
Men And Women ◽  
Potassium Intake ◽  
Salt Consumption ◽  
Physical Measurements ◽  
Random Samples ◽  
Sodium And Potassium

Excess salt and inadequate potassium intakes are associated with high cardiovascular disease (CVD). In Montenegro, CVD is the leading cause of death and disability. There is no survey that has directly measured salt and potassium consumption in Montenegro. The aim is to estimate population salt and potassium intakes and explore knowledge, attitudes and behaviour (KAB), amongst the adult population of Podgorica. Random samples of adults were obtained from primary care centres. Participants attended a screening including demographic, anthropometric and physical measurements. Dietary salt and potassium intakes were assessed by 24h urinary sodium (UNa) and potassium (UK) excretions. Creatinine was measured. KAB was collected by questionnaire. Six hundred and thirty-nine (285 men, 25-65 years) were included in the analysis (response rate 63%). Mean UNa was 186.5 (SD 90.3) mmol/day, equivalent to 11.6g of salt/day, and potassium excretion 62.5 (26.2) mmol/day, equivalent to 3.2g/day. Only 7% of them had a salt intake below the WHO recommended target of 5g/day, and 13% ate enough potassium (&gt;90 mmol/day). The majority (86%) knew that high salt causes ill-health. However, only 44% thought it would be useful to reduce consumption. Salt consumption is high, and potassium consumption is low, in men and women living in Podgorica.

scholarly journals Body Fluid-Independent Effects of Dietary Salt Consumption in Chronic Kidney Disease

Nutrients ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 11 (11) ◽  
pp. 2779 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jetta J. Oppelaar ◽  
Liffert Vogt
Keyword(s):  
Chronic Kidney Disease ◽  
Kidney Disease ◽  
Body Fluid ◽  
Cardiovascular Health ◽  
Salt Intake ◽  
High Salt ◽  
Dietary Salt ◽  
Dietary Salt Intake ◽  
Salt Consumption ◽  
Independent Effects

The average dietary salt (i.e., sodium chloride) intake in Western society is about 10 g per day. This greatly exceeds the lifestyle recommendations by the WHO to limit dietary salt intake to 5 g. There is robust evidence that excess salt intake is associated with deleterious effects including hypertension, kidney damage and adverse cardiovascular health. In patients with chronic kidney disease, moderate reduction of dietary salt intake has important renoprotective effects and positively influences the efficacy of common pharmacological treatment regimens. During the past several years, it has become clear that besides influencing body fluid volume high salt also induces tissue remodelling and activates immune cell homeostasis. The exact pathophysiological pathway in which these salt-induced fluid-independent effects contribute to CKD is not fully elucidated, nonetheless it is clear that inflammation and the development of fibrosis play a major role in the pathogenic mechanisms of renal diseases. This review focuses on body fluid-independent effects of salt contributing to CKD pathogenesis and cardiovascular health. Additionally, the question whether better understanding of these pathophysiological pathways, related to high salt consumption, might identify new potential treatment options will be discussed.

scholarly journals Estimation of salt intake by 24 h urinary sodium excretion in a representative sample of Spanish adults

2010 ◽  
Vol 105 (5) ◽  
pp. 787-794 ◽  
Author(s):  
Rosa M. Ortega ◽  
Ana M. López-Sobaler ◽  
Juan M. Ballesteros ◽  
Napoleón Pérez-Farinós ◽  
Elena Rodríguez-Rodríguez ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Representative Sample ◽  
Salt Intake ◽  
Adult Population ◽  
Urinary Sodium Excretion ◽  
Fat Free Mass ◽  
Dietary Salt ◽  
Middle Aged ◽  
Dietary Salt Intake ◽  
Salt Consumption ◽  
Middle Aged Adult

The present study reports the Na intake of a representative sample of Spanish young and middle-aged adults aged 18–60 years (n418, 53·1 % women, selected from the capitals of fifteen provinces and the surrounding semi-urban/rural area), measured with a 24 h urinary Na excretion method. To validate the paper collection of 24 h urine, the correlation between fat-free mass determined by electrical bioimpedance (50·8 (sd11·3) kg) and that determined via urinary creatinine excretion (51·5 (sd18·8) kg) was calculated (r0·633,P < 0·001). Urinary Na excretion correlated with systolic and dyastolic blood pressure data (r0·243 and 0·153, respectively). Assuming that all urinary Na (168·0 (sd78·6) mmol/d) comes from the diet, Na excretion would correspond with a dietary salt intake of 9·8 (sd4·6) g/d, and it would mean that 88·2 % of the subjects had salt intakes above the recommended 5 g/d. Logistic regression analysis, adjusted for sex, age and BMI, showed male sex (OR 3·678, 95 % CI 2·336, 5·791) and increasing BMI (OR 1·069, 95 % CI 1·009, 1·132) (P < 0·001) to be associated with excreting >200 mmol/d urinary Na – a consequence of the higher salt intake in men and in participants with higher BMI. The present results help us to know the baseline salt intake in the Spanish young and middle-aged adult population, and can be used as the baseline to design policies to reduce salt consumption.

scholarly journals Estimation of Salt Intake and its Relation to Knowledge and Attitude Regarding the Dangers of High Salt Intake Among an Urban Omani Population

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Muhammad M Shaikh ◽  
Ali HZ Alkhayari ◽  
Qusay AK Alabdulsalam ◽  
Khamis AlHashmi ◽  
Sunil K Nadar
Keyword(s):  
Urban Population ◽  
Salt Intake ◽  
High Salt ◽  
Dietary Salt ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Dietary Salt Intake ◽  
Attitudes And Practices ◽  
Salt Consumption ◽  
Knowledge And Attitudes ◽  
High Salt Intake

Objectives: High salt consumption is a major risk factor for hypertension. Studies have shown dietary salt intake to be high in many parts of the world. The aim of this study was to assess the daily salt consumption by the urban population in Oman and to assess their knowledge and attitudes towards dietary salt. Methods: This was a cross-sectional questionnaire-based study conducted between September to December 2017 in Muscat. We used previously validated questionnaires to assess salt intake and the knowledge and attitudes to salt intake. Results: 345 responses were received out of 500 distributed questionnaires (response rate 69%) of which 300 responses (27.88 + 7.9 years, 53.3% male) were included for analysis. 94% of the participants agreed that lowering salt in diet is important and nearly half the participants said that they were taking measures to reduce salt intake. However, the median salt intake was high at 10.5(7.3-15.1) gm salt/day. 90% of those questioned consume more than the maximum recommended amount of salt per day. Salt intake was significantly higher in females and older age group (>40 years of age), There did not appear to be any correlation between awareness of the dangers of salt intake and the amount consumed. Conclusion: The salt intake in our sampled population in Oman is high and does not depend on knowledge. Strategies should be designed to reduce salt intake by health education and increasing knowledge about complications of high salt intake among the urban population. Keywords: dietaray sodium chloride; knowledge attitudes and practices.

scholarly journals ACE insertion/deletion genetic polymorphism, serum ACE levels and high dietary salt intake influence the risk of obesity development among the Saudi adult population

2019 ◽  
Vol 20 (3) ◽  
pp. 147032031987094 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jamal SM Sabir ◽  
Abdelfatteh El Omri ◽  
Imran Ali Khan ◽  
Babajan Banaganapalli ◽  
Nahid H Hajrah ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Genetic Polymorphism ◽  
Salt Intake ◽  
Sodium Intake ◽  
Adult Population ◽  
Positive Association ◽  
Saudi Population ◽  
Dietary Salt ◽  
Dietary Salt Intake ◽  
Salt Consumption ◽  
Ace Activity

Introduction: Angiotensin-converting enzyme ( ACE), which contributes to adipocyte growth, differentiation and function, has recently been linked with both salt metabolism and obesity development. Therefore, this study has aimed to investigate the putative relationship between ACE genetic polymorphism, serum ACE levels and salt consumption on the risk of developing obesity in the Saudi population. Materials and methods: ACE genotype status of 267 adult Saudi volunteers (124 obese and 143 non-obese) was correlated with their serum ACE activity and dietary salt intake amounts. Results: Obesity was more prevalent in deletion-deletion genotype individuals ( p<0.03), under dominant, co-dominant and monoallelic conditions ( p<0.04). Deletion allele corresponds to serum ACE activity in obese patients ( p<0.05). The amount of salt intake (<6 g/d) was significantly associated with obesity and particularly high in deletion-deletion and insertion-deletion genotype carriers ( p<0.001). STITCH analysis underlined interactions of the ACE protein with sodium molecule, REN, ACE2, KNG1 and AGTR1 in a biological network. Conclusions: Our findings suggest the positive association between ACE deletion genotype, serum ACE activity and sodium intake with risk of obesity development in the Saudi population.

Effect of advancing age on dietary salt intakes: a 10-year follow-up study

2020 ◽  
Vol 41 (Supplement_2) ◽  
Author(s):  
H Takase ◽  
M Machii ◽  
D Nonaka ◽  
K Ohno ◽  
S Takayama ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Salt Intake ◽  
Age Difference ◽  
Elderly Persons ◽  
Dietary Salt ◽  
Nutrition Survey ◽  
Men And Women ◽  
Dietary Salt Intake ◽  
Spot Urine ◽  
Follow Up Study

Abstract Background/Introduction The National Nutrition Survey in Japan indicated that dietary salt intake of the Japanese is gradually decreasing for the last several decades, while salt intakes are higher in elderly than young people. There is no survey on the alteration of salt intakes with advancing age in individuals. Purpose The present study investigated effects of aging on salt intakes in individuals. Methods A total of 2600 subjects (men; 1787, age; 30 to 79 years-old at 2008) who participated in our physical check-up program both in 2008 and 2018 were enrolled. Individual dietary salt intakes in 2008 and 2018, which were estimated using a spot urine by a previously reported method, were compared. Results The mean age and salt intakes at 2008 were 53.9±10.0 years and 12.2±3.2 g/day in men and 54.4±9.2 years and 8.3±2.1 g/day in women, respectively. Salt intake increased to 13.2±3.3 g/day in men and 8.8±2.2 g/day in women during the 10 years. Salt intakes were higher in hypertensive than normotensive subjects both at 2008 and 2018, but changes of blood pressure category were not associated with those of salt intakes during the 10 years (table). Changes in salt intakes in each decade are shown in Figure. Salt intakes in each decade increased with advancing age both in men and women until their 70s. Salt intakes in people in their 60s and 70s at 2018 were higher than those at 2008. Similar results were obtained in subjects without any anti-hypertensive medications (n=1667) (data not shown). Conclusions The observational follow-up study revealed that salt intakes in each individual increased after the interval of 10 years in both men and women. The results suggest that the sense of taste changes with advancing age in young adults as well as elderly persons, which may be related with alterations of lifestyle. Age difference in changes of salt intake Funding Acknowledgement Type of funding source: None

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