ACE insertion/deletion genetic polymorphism, serum ACE levels and high dietary salt intake influence the risk of obesity development among the Saudi adult population

Introduction: Angiotensin-converting enzyme ( ACE), which contributes to adipocyte growth, differentiation and function, has recently been linked with both salt metabolism and obesity development. Therefore, this study has aimed to investigate the putative relationship between ACE genetic polymorphism, serum ACE levels and salt consumption on the risk of developing obesity in the Saudi population. Materials and methods: ACE genotype status of 267 adult Saudi volunteers (124 obese and 143 non-obese) was correlated with their serum ACE activity and dietary salt intake amounts. Results: Obesity was more prevalent in deletion-deletion genotype individuals ( p<0.03), under dominant, co-dominant and monoallelic conditions ( p<0.04). Deletion allele corresponds to serum ACE activity in obese patients ( p<0.05). The amount of salt intake (<6 g/d) was significantly associated with obesity and particularly high in deletion-deletion and insertion-deletion genotype carriers ( p<0.001). STITCH analysis underlined interactions of the ACE protein with sodium molecule, REN, ACE2, KNG1 and AGTR1 in a biological network. Conclusions: Our findings suggest the positive association between ACE deletion genotype, serum ACE activity and sodium intake with risk of obesity development in the Saudi population.

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Estimation of salt intake by 24 h urinary sodium excretion in a representative sample of Spanish adults

British Journal Of Nutrition ◽

10.1017/s000711451000423x ◽

2010 ◽

Vol 105 (5) ◽

pp. 787-794 ◽

Cited By ~ 64

Author(s):

Rosa M. Ortega ◽

Ana M. López-Sobaler ◽

Juan M. Ballesteros ◽

Napoleón Pérez-Farinós ◽

Elena Rodríguez-Rodríguez ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Representative Sample ◽

Salt Intake ◽

Adult Population ◽

Urinary Sodium Excretion ◽

Fat Free Mass ◽

Dietary Salt ◽

Middle Aged ◽

Dietary Salt Intake ◽

Salt Consumption ◽

Middle Aged Adult

The present study reports the Na intake of a representative sample of Spanish young and middle-aged adults aged 18–60 years (n418, 53·1 % women, selected from the capitals of fifteen provinces and the surrounding semi-urban/rural area), measured with a 24 h urinary Na excretion method. To validate the paper collection of 24 h urine, the correlation between fat-free mass determined by electrical bioimpedance (50·8 (sd11·3) kg) and that determined via urinary creatinine excretion (51·5 (sd18·8) kg) was calculated (r0·633,P < 0·001). Urinary Na excretion correlated with systolic and dyastolic blood pressure data (r0·243 and 0·153, respectively). Assuming that all urinary Na (168·0 (sd78·6) mmol/d) comes from the diet, Na excretion would correspond with a dietary salt intake of 9·8 (sd4·6) g/d, and it would mean that 88·2 % of the subjects had salt intakes above the recommended 5 g/d. Logistic regression analysis, adjusted for sex, age and BMI, showed male sex (OR 3·678, 95 % CI 2·336, 5·791) and increasing BMI (OR 1·069, 95 % CI 1·009, 1·132) (P < 0·001) to be associated with excreting >200 mmol/d urinary Na – a consequence of the higher salt intake in men and in participants with higher BMI. The present results help us to know the baseline salt intake in the Spanish young and middle-aged adult population, and can be used as the baseline to design policies to reduce salt consumption.

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Sodium and Potassium Intake, Knowledge Attitudes and Behaviour Towards Salt Consumption Amongst Adults in Podgorica, Montenegro

Nutrients ◽

10.3390/nu11010160 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 11 (1) ◽

pp. 160 ◽

Cited By ~ 3

Author(s):

Lanfranco D’Elia ◽

Mina Brajović ◽

Aleksandra Klisic ◽

Joao Breda ◽

Jo Jewell ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Salt Intake ◽

Adult Population ◽

World Health ◽

Dietary Salt ◽

Potassium Intake ◽

Salt Consumption ◽

Physical Measurements ◽

Random Samples ◽

Health Organization ◽

Sodium And Potassium

Excess salt and inadequate potassium intakes are associated with high cardiovascular disease (CVD). In Montenegro, CVD is the leading cause of death and disability. There is no survey that has directly measured salt and potassium consumption in Montenegro. The aim is to estimate population salt and potassium intakes and explore knowledge, attitudes and behaviour (KAB), amongst the adult population of Podgorica. Random samples of adults were obtained from primary care centres. Participants attended a screening including demographic, anthropometric and physical measurements. Dietary salt and potassium intakes were assessed by 24 h urinary sodium (UNa) and potassium (UK) excretions. Creatinine was measured. KAB was collected by questionnaire. Six hundred and thirty-nine (285 men, 25–65 years) were included in the analysis (response rate 63%). Mean UNa was 186.5 (SD 90.3) mmoL/day, equivalent to 11.6 g of salt/day and potassium excretion 62.5 (26.2) mmoL/day, equivalent to 3.2 g/day. Only 7% of them had a salt intake below the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended target of 5 g/day and 13% ate enough potassium (>90 mmoL/day). The majority (86%) knew that high salt causes ill-health. However, only 44% thought it would be useful to reduce consumption. Salt consumption is high and potassium consumption is low, in men and women living in Podgorica.

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Mean Dietary Salt Intake in Vanuatu: A Population Survey of 755 Participants on Efate Island

Nutrients ◽

10.3390/nu11040916 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 11 (4) ◽

pp. 916

Author(s):

Katherine Paterson ◽

Nerida Hinge ◽

Emalie Sparks ◽

Kathy Trieu ◽

Joseph Alvin Santos ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Salt Intake ◽

Urine Samples ◽

World Health ◽

Dietary Salt ◽

Cross Sectional Survey ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Middle Income ◽

Dietary Salt Intake ◽

Spot Urine ◽

Salt Consumption

Non-communicable diseases are responsible for 63% of global deaths, with a higher burden in low- and middle-income countries. Hypertension is the leading cause of cardiovascular-disease-related deaths worldwide, and approximately 1.7 million deaths are directly attributable to excess salt intake annually. There has been little research conducted on the level of salt consumption amongst the population of Vanuatu. Based on data from other Pacific Island countries and knowledge of changing regional diets, it was predicted that salt intake would exceed the World Health Organization’s (WHO) recommended maximum of 5 g per day. The current study aimed to provide Vanuatu with a preliminary baseline assessment of population salt intake on Efate Island. A cross-sectional survey collected demographic, clinical, and urine data from participants aged 18 to 69 years in rural and urban communities on Efate Island in October 2016 and February 2017. Mean salt intake was determined to be 7.2 (SD 2.3) g/day from spot urine samples, and 5.9 (SD 3.6) g/day from 24-h urine samples, both of which exceed the WHO recommended maximum. Based on the spot urine samples, males had significantly higher salt intake than females (7.8 g compared to 6.5 g; p < 0.001) and almost 85% of the population consumed more than the WHO recommended maximum daily amount. A coordinated government strategy is recommended to reduce salt consumption, including fiscal policies, engagement with the food industry, and education and awareness-raising to promote behavior change.

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Sodium and Potassium Intake, Knowledge Attitudes and Behaviour Towards Salt Consumption, Amongst Adults in Podgorica, Montenegro

10.20944/preprints201812.0023.v1 ◽

2018 ◽

Author(s):

Lanfranco D'Elia ◽

Mina Brajovic ◽

Aleksandra Klisic ◽

Joao Breda ◽

Jo Jewell ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Response Rate ◽

Salt Intake ◽

Adult Population ◽

Dietary Salt ◽

Men And Women ◽

Potassium Intake ◽

Salt Consumption ◽

Physical Measurements ◽

Random Samples ◽

Sodium And Potassium

Excess salt and inadequate potassium intakes are associated with high cardiovascular disease (CVD). In Montenegro, CVD is the leading cause of death and disability. There is no survey that has directly measured salt and potassium consumption in Montenegro. The aim is to estimate population salt and potassium intakes and explore knowledge, attitudes and behaviour (KAB), amongst the adult population of Podgorica. Random samples of adults were obtained from primary care centres. Participants attended a screening including demographic, anthropometric and physical measurements. Dietary salt and potassium intakes were assessed by 24h urinary sodium (UNa) and potassium (UK) excretions. Creatinine was measured. KAB was collected by questionnaire. Six hundred and thirty-nine (285 men, 25-65 years) were included in the analysis (response rate 63%). Mean UNa was 186.5 (SD 90.3) mmol/day, equivalent to 11.6g of salt/day, and potassium excretion 62.5 (26.2) mmol/day, equivalent to 3.2g/day. Only 7% of them had a salt intake below the WHO recommended target of 5g/day, and 13% ate enough potassium (>90 mmol/day). The majority (86%) knew that high salt causes ill-health. However, only 44% thought it would be useful to reduce consumption. Salt consumption is high, and potassium consumption is low, in men and women living in Podgorica.

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Genetically, dietary sodium intake is causally associated with salt-sensitive hypertension risk in a community-based cohort study: a Mendelian randomization approach

European Heart Journal ◽

10.1093/ehjci/ehaa946.2791 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 41 (Supplement_2) ◽

Author(s):

J.R Choi

Keyword(s):

Mendelian Randomization ◽

Salt Intake ◽

Sodium Intake ◽

Dietary Sodium ◽

Funding Source ◽

Dietary Salt ◽

Community Based ◽

Dietary Salt Intake ◽

Hypertension Risk ◽

Salt Sensitive Hypertension

Abstract Excessive dietary salt intake is associated with an increased risk of hypertension. Salt sensitivity, i.e., an elevation in blood pressure in response to high dietary salt intake, has been associated with a high risk of cardiovascular disease and mortality. We investigated whether a causal association exists between dietary sodium intake and hypertension risk using Mendelian randomization (MR). We performed an MR study using data from a large genome-wide association study comprising 15,034 Korean adults in a community-based cohort study. A total of 1,282 candidate single nucleotide polymorphisms associated with dietary sodium intake, such as rs2960306, rs4343, and rs1937671, were selected as instrumental variables. The inverse variance weighted method was used to assess the evidence for causality. Higher dietary sodium intake was associated with salt-sensitive hypertension risk. The variants of SLC8E1 rs2241543 and ADD1 rs16843589 were strongly associated with increased blood pressure. In the logistic regression model, after adjusting for age, gender, smoking, drinking, exercise, and body mass index, the GRK4 rs2960306TT genotype was inversely associated with hypertension risk (OR = 0.356, 95% CI = 0.236–0.476). However, the 2350GG genotype (ACE rs4343) exhibited a 2.11-fold increased hypertension risk (OR = 2.114, 95% CI = 2.004–2.224) relative to carriers of the 2350AA genotype, after adjusting for confounders. MR analysis revealed that the odds ratio for hypertension per 1 mg/day increment of dietary sodium intake was 2.24 in participants with the PRKG1 rs12414562 AA genotype. Our findings suggest that dietary sodium intake may be causally associated with hypertension risk. Funding Acknowledgement Type of funding source: Public Institution(s). Main funding source(s): This research was supported by the Basic Science Research Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF), funded by the Ministry of Education (2017R1D1A3B03034119, 2014M3C9A3064552), and the KRIBB Initiative program. This research was also supported by the Medical Research Center Program (2017R1A5A2015369). This work was supported (in part) by the Yonsei University Research Fund 2017. Bioresources for this study were provided by the National Biobank of Korea and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Republic of Korea (2017-009).

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Salt and Health: Survey on Knowledge and Salt Intake Related Behaviour in Italy

Nutrients ◽

10.3390/nu12020279 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 12 (2) ◽

pp. 279 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Paola Iaccarino Idelson ◽

Lanfranco D’Elia ◽

Giulia Cairella ◽

Paola Sabino ◽

Luca Scalfi ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Online Survey ◽

Social Inequalities ◽

Dietary Habits ◽

Salt Intake ◽

Negative Impact ◽

Sodium Intake ◽

Italian Population ◽

Dietary Salt ◽

Dietary Salt Intake ◽

Level Of Knowledge

Background and aim: Excess sodium intake is a recognised causal factor of hypertension and its cardiovascular complications; there is however a lack of practical instruments to assess and monitor the level of knowledge and behaviour about dietary salt intake and to relate these factors to the population general dietary habits. Methods and Results: A self-administered questionnaire was developed to assess the salt and health related knowledge and behaviour of the Italian population through an online survey. A sample of 11,618 Italian participants completed the questionnaire. The degree of knowledge and the reported behaviour about salt intake were both found to be related to age, gender, home region, level of education and occupation. There was a significant interrelation between salt knowledge and behaviour and both were significantly and directly related to the degree of adherence to a Mediterranean-like dietary pattern. A hierarchical evaluation was also made of the relevance of any single question to the overall assessment of knowledge and behaviour about salt intake. Conclusions: The study population overall appeared to have a decent level of knowledge about salt, but a less satisfactory behaviour. Our findings point to social inequalities and young age as the main factors having a negative impact on knowledge and behaviour about salt intake as part of generally inadequate dietary habits. The degrees of knowledge and behaviour were significantly and directly interrelated, confirming that improving knowledge is a key step for behavioural changes, and suggesting that educational campaigns are crucial for the implementation of good practices in nutrition.

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Renal denervation chronically lowers arterial pressure independent of dietary sodium intake in normal rats

AJP Heart and Circulatory Physiology ◽

10.1152/ajpheart.01029.2002 ◽

2003 ◽

Vol 284 (6) ◽

pp. H2302-H2310 ◽

Cited By ~ 52

Author(s):

Frédéric Jacob ◽

Pilar Ariza ◽

John W. Osborn

Keyword(s):

Arterial Pressure ◽

Salt Intake ◽

Sodium Intake ◽

Recovery Period ◽

Control Period ◽

Dietary Sodium ◽

Renal Nerves ◽

Dietary Salt ◽

Dietary Salt Intake ◽

High Salt Intake

The present study was designed to test the hypothesis that renal nerves chronically modulate arterial pressure (AP) under basal conditions and during changes in dietary salt intake. To test this hypothesis, continuous telemetric recording of AP in intact (sham) and renal denervated (RDNX) Sprague-Dawley rats was performed and the effect of increasing and decreasing dietary salt intake on AP was determined. In protocol 1, 24-h AP, sodium, and water balances were measured in RDNX ( n = 11) and sham ( n = 9) rats during 5 days of normal (0.4% NaCl) and 10 days of high (4.0% NaCl) salt intake, followed by a 3-day recovery period (0.4% NaCl). Protocol 2 was similar with the exception that salt intake was decreased to 0.04% NaCl for 10 days after the 5-day period of normal salt (0.04% NaCl) intake (RDNX; n = 6, sham; n = 5). In protocol 1, AP was lower in RDNX (91 ± 1 mmHg) compared with sham (101 ± 2 mmHg) rats during the 5-day 0.4% NaCl control period. During the 10 days of high salt intake, AP increased <5 mmHg in both groups so that the difference between sham and RDNX rats remained constant. In protocol 2, AP was also lower in RDNX (93 ± 2 mmHg) compared with sham (105 ± 4 mmHg) rats during the 5-day 0.4% NaCl control period, and AP did not change in response to 10 days of a low-salt diet in either group. Overall, there were no between-group differences in sodium or water balance in either protocol. We conclude that renal nerves support basal levels of AP, irrespective of dietary sodium intake in normal rats.

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Association of Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms in Salt Taste Receptor Genes With Dietary Salt Intake and Blood Pressure Among Iranian Adults Population

Current Developments in Nutrition ◽

10.1093/cdn/nzab050_012 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 5 (Supplement_2) ◽

pp. 945-945

Author(s):

Noushin Mohammadifard ◽

Mojgan Gharipour ◽

Faezeh Moazeni

Keyword(s):

Blood Pressure ◽

Salt Intake ◽

Sodium Intake ◽

Taste Receptors ◽

Urine Collection ◽

Nucleotide Polymorphisms ◽

Dietary Salt ◽

Single Nucleotide ◽

Dietary Salt Intake ◽

Salt Taste

Abstract Objectives So far, few researches has examined how genetic variation in salt taste receptors affects food intake in Iranian population. Thus, in this study, we aimed to investigate associations of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in salt taste receptors genes with dietary salt intake and blood pressure. Methods This cross-sectional study was carried out among 116 randomly selected adults aged 18 years and over in Isfahan city, Iran. Subjects with diabetes insipidus, renal insufficiency, a special dietary regimen, fasting or menstruating on the day of sampling, using diuretics and oral contraceptives or pregnant and lactating women as well as participants who had incomplete 24-h urine collection were excluded. A 24-h urine collection and blood pressure measurement were done. Whole blood was collected to extract DNA and measure SNP rs239345 in the ENaC and rs224534, rs4790151 and rs8065080 in the TRPV1 gene. Results Homozygous carriers of the T allele for rs239345 were found to consume significantly more sodium (4414.7 ± 1943.8 mg/day) compared to the AA genotype (3887.4 ± 1709.1 mg/day). Further, they also had higher diastolic blood pressure compared to subjects with the AA genotype (81.3 ± 9.7 vs. 75.3 ± 8.3 mmHg). Compared to subjects with the CC genotype, those with homozygous carriers of the T allele for rs8065080 in the TRPV1 had higher sodium intake (3592.6 ± 1645.2 mg/day vs. 4604.2 ± 2013.5 mg/day) and systolic blood pressure (118.1 ± 11.3 mmHg vs. 123.4 ± 11.5 mmHg). No differences were found in dietary sodium intake and blood pressure with the rs224534 and rs4790151 SNPs. Conclusions These findings suggest that genetic variation in the ENaC and TRPV1 genes may contribute to inter-individual differences in salt intake and blood pressure. Funding Sources The National Institute for Medical Research Development (NIMAD) was funded this study via grant number of 977,549.

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SALT INTAKE AND EATING PATTERNS OF INFANTS AND CHILDREN IN RELATION TO BLOOD PRESSURE

PEDIATRICS ◽

10.1542/peds.53.1.115 ◽

1974 ◽

Vol 53 (1) ◽

pp. 115-121

Author(s):

Malcolm A. Holliday ◽

Arnold S. Anderson ◽

Lewis A. Barness ◽

Richard B. Goldbloom ◽

James C. Haworth ◽

...

Keyword(s):

At Risk ◽

Family History ◽

Cultural Values ◽

Salt Intake ◽

Salt Appetite ◽

Dietary Salt ◽

Contributing Factors ◽

Dietary Salt Intake ◽

Salt Consumption ◽

The Individual

Approximately 20% of children in this country are at risk of developing hypertension as adults. The factors that will induce hypertension are genetic, which cannot be modified, and environmental, which can be modified. Genetic factors assist in identifying the population at risk, i.e., family history of hypertension, myocardial infarction, stroke, or renal disease. The population with a negative family history is less at risk. The role of salt intake as an environmental factor in the induction of hypertension has still to be defined. For 80% of the population in this country, present salt intake has not been demonstrated to be harmful, i.e., hypertension has not developed. Salt intake is likely to be only one of the contributing factors for those whose genetic makeup predisposes them to hypertension. Salt appetite for some is an important expression of personal preference in relation to diet; for others, salt-containing foods have important cultural values. Present evidence does not provide a firm basis for advising a change in the dietary salt intake for the general population. There is a reasonable possibility that a low salt intake begun early in life may protect, to some extent, persons at risk from developing hypertension. Salt consumption today is being determined to an increasing degree by food manufacturers and processors and quick-service food suppliers. To the extent that salt is added to a food prior to its being served, the individual has an obligatory rather than a selected intake of salt. The consumption of presalted foods may be producing significant changes in salt intake which are not perceived at this time.

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Body Fluid-Independent Effects of Dietary Salt Consumption in Chronic Kidney Disease

Nutrients ◽

10.3390/nu11112779 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 11 (11) ◽

pp. 2779 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Jetta J. Oppelaar ◽

Liffert Vogt

Keyword(s):

Chronic Kidney Disease ◽

Kidney Disease ◽

Body Fluid ◽

Cardiovascular Health ◽

Salt Intake ◽

High Salt ◽

Dietary Salt ◽

Dietary Salt Intake ◽

Salt Consumption ◽

Independent Effects

The average dietary salt (i.e., sodium chloride) intake in Western society is about 10 g per day. This greatly exceeds the lifestyle recommendations by the WHO to limit dietary salt intake to 5 g. There is robust evidence that excess salt intake is associated with deleterious effects including hypertension, kidney damage and adverse cardiovascular health. In patients with chronic kidney disease, moderate reduction of dietary salt intake has important renoprotective effects and positively influences the efficacy of common pharmacological treatment regimens. During the past several years, it has become clear that besides influencing body fluid volume high salt also induces tissue remodelling and activates immune cell homeostasis. The exact pathophysiological pathway in which these salt-induced fluid-independent effects contribute to CKD is not fully elucidated, nonetheless it is clear that inflammation and the development of fibrosis play a major role in the pathogenic mechanisms of renal diseases. This review focuses on body fluid-independent effects of salt contributing to CKD pathogenesis and cardiovascular health. Additionally, the question whether better understanding of these pathophysiological pathways, related to high salt consumption, might identify new potential treatment options will be discussed.

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