The Sociolinguistic Types of Language Change

Diachronica ◽  
1990 ◽  
Vol 7 (1) ◽  
pp. 47-67 ◽  
Author(s):  
Gregory R. Guy

SUMMARY Many studies of linguistic change have drawn distinctions between contrasting types of change. Examples are the Neogrammarian distinction between regular sound change and borrowing, and Labov's contrast between 'change from above' and 'change from below'. A basic criterion for many such distinctions is whether or not language contact is involved in the genesis of a change. Recent works by Thomason & Kaufman (1988) and Van Coetsem (1988) suggest a further important distinction between contact-induced changes that arise through borrowing and those that arise from the imposition of native language habits on a second language. This paper attempts to summarize and critique some major proposals concerning change types, and provide a systematic synthesis that identifies three basic types: spontaneous change, borrowing, and imposition. Each is associated with a distinctive set of social, psychological, and linguistic characteristics, such as the social class distribution, whether speakers are consciously aware of the innovation, and the domains of language structure that are affected. Certain variable parameters that allow the further differentiation of subtypes are also explored, such as (in contact-induced change) the degree of bilingualism and the demographic balance between the languages, and (in spontaneous change) the possible coexistence of contrasting social interpretations of the innovation. RÉSUMÉ Dans les études consacrées au changement linguistique on trouve souvent un façon dichotomique lorsqu'on parle des différents types de changement. Les néogrammariens faisaient une distinction entre changement phonétique régulier et emprunt; Labov parle de l'opposition entre changement de 'en haut' et changement de 'en bas'. Le critère de base pour de telles dichotomies est si du contact linguistique est impliqué ou non dans la genèse d'un changement. Des travaux récents, notamment ceux de Thomason & Kaufman (1988) et Van Coetsem (1988), proposent une importante distinction supplémentaire, à savoir la distinction entre des changements provoqués par des contacts avec d'autres languages (qui prennent leur source dans l'emprunt) et des changements qui résultent d'une imposition des comportements linguistique d'un locuteur natif sur une langue seconde. Le présent article essaie un résumé critique de certains propositions majeures concernant les types de changement et présente un synthèse de ces ouvrages en identifiant trois types de base, à savoir le changement spontané, l'imprunt et l'imposition. Chaque type est associé avec en ensemble particulier de traits sociaux, psychologiques et linguistiques comme, par exemple, la stratification sociale, la question si les locuteurs sont conscients d'une innovation, et les domaines de la structure langagière atteints par un changement. L'article examine également certain paramètres variables qui permettent la différentiation supplémentaire en sous-types, comme le degré du bilingualis-me et la balance démographique entre les langues (au cas des changements provoqués par le contact) et la co-existence possible des interprétations sociales qui s'opposent d'une innovation donnée. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Viele Untersuchungen zum Sprachwandel haben eine Reihe von sich scharf untereinander unterscheidenden Arten der Sprachver ä nderung aufgestellt. Die Junggrammatiker unterschieden zwischen regul ä rem Lautwandel und Entleh-nung; Labov unterscheidet zwischen einem Wandel 'von oben' und einem Wandel 'von unten'. Grundkriterium für viele solcher Unterscheidungen ist ob Sprachkontakt in der Genese eines Wandels eine Rolle spielt oder nicht. Jüngst erschienene Arbeiten von Thomason & Kaufman (1988) und von Van Coet-sem (1988) schlagen eine weitere Unterscheidung vor, nämlich zwischen kon-takt-induzierten Veränderungen, die durch Entlehnung entstehen, und solchen, die ihren Ursprung in der Imposition von spezifischen Sprachgewohnheiten auf eine zweite Sprache haben. Der vorliegende Aufsatz versucht, eine kritische Übersicht über die wichtigsten Vorschläge bezüglich Sprachverände-rungstypen zu bieten und eine Synthese, die drei Haupttypen herausstellt: spontaner Wandel, Entlehnung und Imposition. Jeder Typ wird mit bestimm-ten sozialen, psychologischen und linguistischen Kriterien in Verbindung gebracht, z.B. solchen der soziologischen Schichtung, ob Sprecher sich einer Neuerung bewußt sind und welche Teile der Sprachstruktur betroffen sind. Ebenfalls untersucht werden gewisse veränderliche Parameter, die eine weitere Untergruppierung der Typen ermöglicht, wie etwa der Grad von Zweispra-chigkeit und der demographische Ausgleich zwischen den jeweiligen Sprachen (im Falle von kontaktinduziertem Wandel) und die mögliche Koexistenz von sich widersprechenden gesellschaftlichen Auslegungen einer bestimmten Neuerung (im Falle spontanem Wandels).

1996 ◽  
Vol 19 (2) ◽  
pp. 183-213
Author(s):  
Christopher Stroud

This article explores briefly some phenomena of potential indigenization of the Portuguese spoken in Mozambique. Data for the study has been taken from work that is currently underway in Maputo, Mozambique, that was originally initiated to investigate contact varieties of Portuguese and to probe their educational implications. Speech samples comprise formal interviews and non-formal encounters from a socio-demographically representative sample of informants. The article first provides an inventory of some non-standard European Portuguese variants that are found in this data, and subsequently focusses upon a discussion of what contribution different linguistic processes make to indigenization, specifically the role played by processes of second language acquisition in a context of massive and diffuse language contact and change. Special attention is also paid to the social contexts in which different manifestations of language contact are found, and the importance of linguistic ideology for the form that language contact takes in particular cases is explored. The article concludes with the suggestion that the salient characteristics of types of non-native speech community such as Maputo require a reconceptualization of models and methods of contact linguistics and second language acquisition, and that this in turn carries implications for the terms of reference and analysis to which indigenization need be related.


Author(s):  
Klaus Beyer

The chapter starts with a short history of contact studies related to Africa. It briefly looks at early works from Heine (pidgins in the Bantu area) and the French tradition exemplified in the LACITO series on language contact. Considerable space is given to the developments of the last ten years or so when areal linguistics (Aikhenvald and Dixon), linguistic geography (Heine and Nurse), and contact linguistics (Childs, Mesthrie) were put center stage in the African linguistic context. The second part of the chapter looks at methodological issues. Substantial space is given to social contexts in the description of contact-induced language change. The social network approach and other sociolinguistic tools are demonstrated by means of a brief case study from a West African rural contact zone.


2020 ◽  
Vol 2 (6) ◽  
pp. 307-315
Author(s):  
Elena A. Markova ◽  

This article examines literary works of bilingual authors in Nigeria, who create their own national cultural worldviews through the language in which they write, thereby explaining why English in Nigeria is influenced by Nigerian culture. Nigeria is a country that has witnessed a cross-flow of linguistic change due to its inherent multilingualism combined with colonial experiences under British rule, a country where ethnic minorities were referred to as “oil minorities”. Although only two languages are recognized as official languages in Nigeria — Yoruba and English –the problem of multilingualism in Nigeria today remains unexplored, and where there is language contact, there must be a language conflict. Indeed, contiguous languages are often competitive languages and there is no language contact without language conflict. Moreover, the problem of linguistic contact and linguistic conflict exists at three different but interrelated levels: social, psychological and linguistic. The social aspect is related to such issues as the choice of language and its use, the psychological — to the attitude towards language, ethnicity, while the linguistic aspects are focused on the code switching, the donor language intervention, which the English language is. The language conflict has influenced the literary work of Nigerian writers writing in English, which has become an exoglossic language, superimposed on the indigenous languages of the Nigerian peoples. Thus, bilingualism in Nigeria can be considered semi-exoglossic, including English coupled with language mixing.


Author(s):  
José Luis Blas Arroyo ◽  
Javier Vellón Lahoz

AbstractBased on a corpus of ego-documents (mainly private letters) from the 18th century, we offer the results of a variationist analysis about the insertion of the article in relative clauses headed by preposition («la casa en (la) que...»). The data show that, despite the remarkable vitality that still enjoys the form without the article (almost categorical in the Golden Age Spanish), several contexts begin to favor the diffusion of the innovative variant in that seminal period. As usual in early stages of language change, the explanatory hierarchy begins with structural factors, several among which are selected as significant by the regression analysis. Nevertheless, the selection of time as well as some distributions in the social and stylistic axes of variation allow us to guess the existence of various phases in this incipient change. The first one, developed throughout the first half of the century, is set up as a spontaneous change from below, at the request of the subaltern classes, the younger people, and the most spontaneous contexts. However, towards the end of the century, this change seems to have been stabilized and even reversed in some way, driven now by the privileged classes, who favor the return to the old variant.


2017 ◽  
Vol 23 (4) ◽  
pp. 856-860
Author(s):  
Mehmet Akkuş

Classified as an endangered language, the Laz language is spoken in a restricted area by a small number of speakers. The contact between Turkish and Laz is intense and unidirectional in that the latter is only restrained to communication among family members in small speech communities. Contact-induced change, which is an inevitable outcome of Turkish-Laz contact, is investigated by placing special emphasis on loanwords. This paper, thus, addresses the contact between Turkish and the Laz language at lexical level and aims to examine whether the existence of Turkish nouns as loanwords in the Laz language is due to contact-induced language change with a culture-heavy loanword transmission or to gradual language loss. The data analysis reveals that these alterations can be divided into four major categories which are i) treatment of vowels, ii) treatment of consonants, iii) direct insertion, and iv) loanblends. The results show that nouns that are transmitted from Turkish into the Laz language undergo phonological and morphological alterations. The contact-induced change in the Laz language is probably due to historical process, lack of knowledge of the Laz language among the young generation and the dominance of Turkish language in social and educational setting. The study is original as it is the first attempt to examine the contact-induced change at lexical level in addition to studies by İmer (1997) and Kutcher (2008) investigating contact between Turkish and the Laz languages. The findings of the study are limited to contact-induced changes taking place in nouns transmitted from Turkish into the Laz language. Therefore, further research is needed to shed light on changes in other lexical categories like adjectives, adverbs, verbs, and so on.


2003 ◽  
Vol 13 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Peter Rosenberg

Dealing with convergence in German speech islands in Russia, Brazil and the United states the article discusses the linguistic phenomena related to the notion of convergence from different vantage points including intralinguistic convergence (due to dialect-dialect contact), interlinguistic convergence (due to language-language contact), typological "convergence" (or intralinguistic change), pidginization, and cognitive processes of simplification. Most of the German speech islands are considered to be contracting - if not dying - varieties with respect to the reduction of their grammatical systems. Evidently, for a long time language contact (and sometimes variety contact) have severely increased. Linguistic norms have been weakened in terms of both norm certainty and norm loyalty thus giving way to processes similar to those common to pidgin languages. External induced changes are highly remarkable in all German speech islands. But the susceptibility for change and the ways of change are structured by systematical and typological constraints which probably turn out to be cognitive processes underlying quite "normal" linguistic change. This change is discussed as a subsequent process of "regularization" (of irregular forms), simplification (of rules) and loss of grammatical distinctions (and their compensation). The linguistic description of these interrelated processes is based on an integrated approach providing methodology from sociolinguistics, dialectology and research on language change, including the attempt to highlight the cognitive structures which furrow the line for internal simplifications under external pressure. Comparative speech island research seems to be a promising field of application for the description of the intermesh of these processes.


2019 ◽  
Vol 78 (1-2) ◽  
pp. 69-75 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mikaël De Clercq ◽  
Charlotte Michel ◽  
Sophie Remy ◽  
Benoît Galand

Abstract. Grounded in social-psychological literature, this experimental study assessed the effects of two so-called “wise” interventions implemented in a student study program. The interventions took place during the very first week at university, a presumed pivotal phase of transition. A group of 375 freshmen in psychology were randomly assigned to three conditions: control, social belonging, and self-affirmation. Following the intervention, students in the social-belonging condition expressed less social apprehension, a higher social integration, and a stronger intention to persist one month later than the other participants. They also relied more on peers as a source of support when confronted with a study task. Students in the self-affirmation condition felt more self-affirmed at the end of the intervention but didn’t benefit from other lasting effects. The results suggest that some well-timed and well-targeted “wise” interventions could provide lasting positive consequences for student adjustment. The respective merits of social-belonging and self-affirmation interventions are also discussed.


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