Surveying views of metaphor vs. literal language in psychotherapy

2020 ◽  
Vol 10 (2) ◽  
pp. 273-291
Author(s):  
Dennis Tay
Keyword(s):  
Factor Structure ◽  
Survey Study ◽  
Future Directions ◽  
Holistic View ◽  
Metaphorical Language ◽  
Client Resistance ◽  
Item Questionnaire ◽  
Two Factors ◽  
Presentation Sequence ◽  
Within Subjects

Abstract Five key therapeutic functions of metaphors are often discussed by psychotherapists. They (i) help clients express emotions and experiences, (ii) help therapists and clients explain difficult concepts, (iii) introduce new frames of reference, (iv) help work through client resistance, and (v) build a collaborative relationship between therapists and clients. Research on how these functions are enacted in psychotherapy talk tends to assume that they are indeed perceived as such by clients, and that metaphorical language is preferred to comparable literal language in performing them. This paper reports a survey study (N = 84) to critically interrogate these assumptions. Participants read two constructed therapy dialogues, controlled and counterbalanced for presentation sequence, where therapist and client discuss an issue using metaphorical and literal language respectively. Each dialogue is followed by a 15-item questionnaire to rate how well the presumed functions were performed (e.g. the therapist and client can work effectively together, the therapist is able to explain difficult concepts). A combined Confirmatory (CFA) and Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) suggests that, instead of the five distinct functions proposed in the literature, participants discerned three functions which reflect a more holistic view of what metaphors can do. A second EFA conducted on literal responses yielded only two factors. This contrast in factor structure further suggests that (i) literal language is less functionally nuanced, and (ii) metaphors are not simply perceived as an ‘add-on’ to literal language, but are evaluated across an extended narrative in fundamentally different ways. Within-subjects metaphor vs. literal ratings of the items under the emergent three-factor structure were then compared. Metaphor ratings were significantly higher in all factors (p < 0.01), suggesting that metaphorical language is indeed perceived as more effective than literal language when discussing clients’ issues. Implications, limitations, and future directions are discussed.

Factor Structure of Organizational Commitment: Differences between U.S. and South Korean Samples

2005 ◽  
Vol 96 (3) ◽  
pp. 595-602 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jo Ann Lee ◽  
Chulguen Yang
Keyword(s):  
Organizational Commitment ◽  
South Korea ◽  
Factor Structure ◽  
Affective Component ◽  
South Korean ◽  
Item Questionnaire ◽  
Two Samples ◽  
Two Factors ◽  
The U.S

The current study compared the factor structures of the construct of organizational commitment between two samples of financial employees, one from the U.S. ( n = 103) and one from South Korea ( n = 109). Participants completed a 26-item questionnaire. Two factors (an affective component and a normative component) emerged for the U.S. sample; only one factor for the Koreans. Results suggest that culture should be considered when trying to assess organizational commitment.

Factor Structure of the Hellenic WISC-III for Children with Learning Disabilities

2018 ◽  
Vol 9 (03) ◽  
pp. 20445-20451
Author(s):  
Adam A ◽  
Kiosseoglou G ◽  
Abatzoglou G ◽  
Papaligoura Z.
Keyword(s):  
Learning Disabilities ◽  
Factor Structure ◽  
Factor Model ◽  
The Other ◽  
Clinical Value ◽  
Reasoning Abilities ◽  
Picture Arrangement ◽  
Factorial Model ◽  
Verbal Subtest ◽  
Two Factors

The present research aims to examine the factor structure of the Hellenic WISC-III in a sample of 50 children with learning disabilities. The results show the existence of a factorial model with two factors, one aggregating the Comprehension verbal subtest with four performance subtests and the other the Picture Arrangement performance subtest with four verbal subtests. This two-factor model includes loadings in two factors that relate to the sequencing abilities and the verbal reasoning abilities of children. These findings assert the clinical value of the intelligence evaluation in these children.

Translation and Validation of the Brazilian Portuguese Version of the Broad Conceptualization of Beauty Scale With Brazilian Women

2021 ◽  
pp. 036168432110134
Author(s):  
Alessandra Costa Pereira Junqueira ◽  
Tracy L. Tylka ◽  
Sebastião de Sousa Almeida ◽  
Telma Maria Braga Costa ◽  
Maria Fernanda Laus
Keyword(s):  
Factor Structure ◽  
Reliability And Validity ◽  
Well Being ◽  
The United States ◽  
Brazilian Portuguese ◽  
Incremental Validity ◽  
Body Appreciation ◽  
Two Factors ◽  
Body Sizes ◽  
Definition Of

In many countries, women are socialized to adopt a narrow definition of beauty. Research has revealed that, in the United States and China, the ability to broadly conceptualize beauty (perceive beauty in diverse body sizes, shapes, and appearances) is linked to women’s lower anti-fat attitudes, higher body appreciation, and higher well-being. In this study, we translated an existing measure of this construct, the Broad Conceptualization of Beauty Scale (BCBS), into Brazilian Portuguese and evaluated the factor structure and reliability and validity of its scores with a diverse sample of 563 Portuguese women. Findings revealed that the Brazilian Portuguese BCBS contains two factors—external/appearance features of beauty (BCBS-E) and internal features of beauty (BCBS-I)—contrary to the unidimensional factor structure found in previous studies. Support for internal consistency and 3-week test–retest reliability was garnered. Total BCBS and BCBS-E scores evidenced convergent, discriminant, and incremental validity, whereas the BCBS-I did not accrue substantial convergent or incremental validity support beyond its inverse bivariate association with anti-fat attitudes. We recommend the use of the Brazilian Portuguese BCBS in body image research programs as well as clinical practice and prevention programs with Brazilian women seeking support for body dissatisfaction and disordered eating.

Workers' Apprehensions Due to Plant Relocation

1979 ◽  
Vol 45 (1) ◽  
pp. 327-332
Author(s):  
Shaul Fox
Keyword(s):  
Factor Analysis ◽  
Item Questionnaire ◽  
Two Factors ◽  
Managerial Positions ◽  
Plant Relocation ◽  
The Impact

The research examined the impact of a planned relocation of a firm in Israel on the apprehensions of its employees. 134 workers were given a 12-item questionnaire which dealt with worries they had concerning their positions after the relocation. Factor analysis of the items indicated two factors, apprehensions relating to the greater distance from home and apprehensions regarding the possible changes in the job situation. Women in non-managerial positions were more apprehensive than men holding similar positions regarding the first factor, while less so regarding the second factor. The only factor which significantly correlated with the workers' intention of leaving the organization after the transfer was the distance from home.

scholarly journals A measure of perceived stigma in people with intellectual disability

2008 ◽  
Vol 193 (5) ◽  
pp. 410-415 ◽  
Author(s):  
Afia Ali ◽  
Andre Strydom ◽  
Angela Hassiotis ◽  
Rachael Williams ◽  
Michael King
Keyword(s):  
Factor Analysis ◽  
Intellectual Disability ◽  
Factor Structure ◽  
Internal Consistency ◽  
Literature Search ◽  
Perceived Stigma ◽  
Moderate Intellectual Disability ◽  
Two Factors ◽  
Test Retest Reliability ◽  
The Impact

BackgroundThere is a lack of validated instruments measuring perceived stigma in people with intellectual disability.AimsTo develop a valid and reliable self-rated instrument to measure perceived stigma that can be completed by people with mild to moderate intellectual disability.MethodA literature search was used to generate a list of statements. Professionals, individuals with intellectual disability and carers were consulted about the suitability of statements. An instrument was developed containing statements about stigma with accompanying photographs. Test–retest reliability, internal consistency and the factor structure of the instrument were evaluated.ResultsThe instrument was completed by 109 people once and 88 people twice. Items with limited variability in responses and kappa coefficients lower than 0.4 were dropped. Exploratory factor analysis revealed two factors: ‘perceived discrimination’ (seven items) and ‘reaction to discrimination’ (four items). One item loaded onto both factors. Cronbach's alpha for the ten-item instrument was 0.84.ConclusionsThis instrument will further our understanding of the impact of stigma in people with intellectual disability in clinical and research settings.

Assessing Cognitive and Affective Empathy Through the Interpersonal Reactivity Index

Assessment ◽  
2016 ◽  
Vol 23 (6) ◽  
pp. 769-777 ◽  
Author(s):  
Evangelia G. Chrysikou ◽  
W. Jake Thompson
Keyword(s):  
Factor Structure ◽  
Factor Model ◽  
Model Fit ◽  
Reactivity Index ◽  
Complex Nature ◽  
Affective Empathy ◽  
Interpersonal Reactivity Index ◽  
Confirmatory Factor ◽  
Two Factors ◽  
First Time

One aspect of higher order social cognition is empathy, a psychological construct comprising a cognitive (recognizing emotions) and an affective (responding to emotions) component. The complex nature of empathy complicates the accurate measurement of these components. The most widely used measure of empathy is the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI). However, the factor structure of the IRI as it is predominantly used in the psychological literature differs from Davis’s original four-factor model in that it arbitrarily combines the subscales to form two factors: cognitive and affective empathy. This two-factor model of the IRI, although popular, has yet to be examined for psychometric support. In the current study, we examine, for the first time, the validity of this alternative model. A confirmatory factor analysis showed poor model fit for this two-factor structure. Additional analyses offered support for the original four-factor model, as well as a hierarchical model for the scale. In line with previous findings, females scored higher on the IRI than males. Our findings indicate that the IRI, as it is currently used in the literature, does not accurately measure cognitive and affective empathy and highlight the advantages of using the original four-factor structure of the scale for empathy assessments.

An Empirical Analysis of the Eriksonian Bipolar Theory of Personality

1981 ◽  
Vol 49 (3) ◽  
pp. 819-822 ◽  
Author(s):  
Raju Varghese
Keyword(s):  
Empirical Analysis ◽  
Factor Structure ◽  
Human Personality ◽  
Two Factors ◽  
Female Subjects

Responses to an Eriksonian personality instrument by 174 female subjects were statistically analyzed to examine the factor structure of the scale and also to consider whether the results are consistent with earlier findings. The two factors derived, termed retrogression and actualization, seemed to support the bipolar nature of the instrument and to be consistent with the two basic dimensions of human personality suggested by Erikson.

Factor Structure of Preferences for Job Attributes among Japanese Workers

1995 ◽  
Vol 77 (3) ◽  
pp. 787-791
Author(s):  
Hirotsugu Yamauchi
Keyword(s):  
Factor Structure ◽  
Factor Scores ◽  
Future Prospects ◽  
Point Scale ◽  
Job Attributes ◽  
Job Selection ◽  
Japanese Workers ◽  
Two Factors ◽  
Management Experience ◽  
And Gender

The present study examined the factor structure of job attributes as related to job selection among 596 Japanese workers. Subjects were asked to complete a questionnaire in which they rated the importance of 22 job attributes on a 5-point scale. Three factors were extracted by principal factor analysis and the factors were rotated by a normalized varimax criterion. The factors were defined as established facilities, future prospects, and utility of specialty factors. Factor scores were compared among amounts of management experience and gender, i.e., divided into 4 groups. There were some significant differences among those amounts of experience and gender in two factors: nonmanagerial workers rated the established facilities as more important than did managerial workers and female clerks rated the future prospects as less important than did male workers.

Factor Structure of the New Environmental Paradigm Scale: Evidence from an Urban Sample in Southern California

2004 ◽  
Vol 94 (1) ◽  
pp. 125-130 ◽  
Author(s):  
Chang-Ho C. Ji
Keyword(s):  
Factor Structure ◽  
Southern California ◽  
Factor Model ◽  
Factor Models ◽  
Two Factors ◽  
Urban Sample ◽  
Original Scale ◽  
The One ◽  
Three Factor ◽  
New Environmental Paradigm

This study examined the factor structure of the New Environmental Paradigm Scale using responses from 261 urban subjects from southern California. The analysis yielded findings inconsistent with many previous studies of the original scale. This study supported an 8-item two-factor model of the scale rather than the one-factor and three-factor models proposed earlier. A subsequent validation study provides evidence for this short form's validity, as the two factors were predictive of commitment to preservation of nature.

scholarly journals Individual differences in literary reading: Dimensions or categories

Psihologija ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 52 (2) ◽  
pp. 179-196 ◽  
Author(s):  
Filip Nenadic ◽  
Milan Oljaca
Keyword(s):  
Individual Differences ◽  
Factor Structure ◽  
Literary Text ◽  
Factor Scores ◽  
Dimensional Approach ◽  
Literary Reading ◽  
Literary Response ◽  
Reading For Pleasure ◽  
Two Factors ◽  
Text Reading

Literary text reading has long been a subject of empirical research. Various measures of reader differences and reader typologies were suggested, with the most prominent being studies of literary expertise, and studies employing Literary Response Questionnaire (LRQ; Miall & Kuiken, 1995). Literary expertise is difficult to define and fails to account for potential differences within non-experts. LRQ and similar dimensional approaches neglect the possibility that a salient reader typology does exist. The main goal of this study is to test whether a salient reader classification can be formed based on participant responses to questionnaires and to test how this classification corresponds to self-reported reader expertise. Based on responses from 741 participants (78.41% female, mean age = 24.31), we test the factor structure of LRQ in its Serbian translation and find moderate, acceptable fit. We also present our own Receptiveness to Literature Questionnaire (UPK) with two factors named Thorough Reading and Reading for Pleasure. Finally, we discuss relations between LRQ and UPK, offer classifications of readers formed on participant factor scores, and test the congruence between these classes and self-reported participant expertise. Our results indicate that a dimensional approach should be favored over forming categories of readers.

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