Race, Ethnicity, Crime, and Justice

Criminology ◽  
2009 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ramiro Martinez
Keyword(s):  
Criminal Justice ◽  
Ethnic Minorities ◽  
Race And Ethnicity ◽  
Large Body ◽  
Ethnic Disparities ◽  
The United States ◽  
Ethnic Composition ◽  
Racial And Ethnic Minorities ◽  
Race Ethnicity ◽  
The Impact

The study of race, ethnicity, crime, and justice usually involves research on racial and ethnic differences in crime and justice patterns or the overrepresentation of racial and ethnic minorities in the criminal justice system. Despite recognition that racial and ethnic variations in crime and justice exist, our knowledge on the sources and consequences of this linkage is incomplete. In part this is because the categories of race and ethnicity are evolving. Also, some of the racial and ethnic categories reported by criminal justice agencies are limited or require refinement. For example, some agencies do not always use the same racial and ethnic categories, particularly with respect to Latinos/Hispanics, and code victims or offenders as either white or black. Nevertheless, although current knowledge is limited, there is still a large body of research on the relationships among race, ethnicity, crime, and justice. Criminologists tend to favor examining the impact of racial or ethnic composition, net of other social and economic factors, on violent crimes such as homicide across cities, or they will examine racial- or ethnic-specific outcomes across communities. Some social scientists also examine the effects of race and ethnicity by examining the relationship between the police and racial and ethnic minorities, or perhaps variations in sentencing and incarceration in prisons, jails, and halfway houses. However one chooses to examine race, ethnicity, crime, and justice, there are considerable racial and ethnic disparities concerning this topic across the United States.

A Systematic Review of Parenting Scales Measurement Invariance/Equivalence of by Race and Ethnicity: Recommendations for Inclusive Parenting Research

Assessment ◽  
2021 ◽  
pp. 107319112110386
Author(s):  
Violeta J. Rodriguez ◽  
Dominique L. La Barrie ◽  
Miriam C. Zegarac ◽  
Anne Shaffer
Keyword(s):  
Systematic Review ◽  
Measurement Invariance ◽  
Ethnic Minorities ◽  
Race And Ethnicity ◽  
Parenting Practices ◽  
The United States ◽  
Weak Evidence ◽  
Race Ethnicity ◽  
Development And Validation ◽  
Racial Ethnic

The limited inclusion of racial/ethnic minorities in the development and validation of parenting measures limits our understanding of whether parenting constructs are valid in racial and ethnic minorities. Tests of measurement invariance/equivalence (MI/E) of parenting measures can help evaluate the validity of parenting constructs among racial/ethnic minorities. This systematic review summarized studies on MI/E of parenting constructs by race/ethnicity and evaluated the strength of the evidence. A literature search was conducted using various databases and references to retrieve studies from the United States. Indeed, 10 studies were identified that tested for MI/E of eight parenting scales by race/ethnicity. Only one scale showed moderate evidence of MI/E, five showed weak evidence of MI/E, and two showed no evidence of MI/E. Most studies (80%) used factor analytic methods to test for MI/E, but only two studies (20%) examined all levels of invariance. These findings show that differences exist in how racial/ethnic minorities perceive parenting constructs. Further research is needed to develop more inclusive parenting measures, to protect against the ways in which biased measures may pathologize or misrepresent parenting practices among racial/ethnic minorities.

Racial and Ethnic Differences in Response to Anticoagulation: A Review of the Literature

2019 ◽  
pp. 089719001989414 ◽  
Author(s):  
Caitlin M. Gibson ◽  
Wei C. Yuet
Keyword(s):  
Racial Differences ◽  
Race And Ethnicity ◽  
Oral Anticoagulants ◽  
Direct Oral Anticoagulants ◽  
Ethnic Disparities ◽  
The United States ◽  
End Points ◽  
Medline Search ◽  
Drug Concentrations ◽  
The Impact

Introduction: Anticoagulants are among the most frequently prescribed medications in the United States. Racial and ethnic disparities in incidence and outcomes of thrombotic disorders are well-documented, but differences in response to anticoagulation are incompletely understood. Objective: The objective of this review is to describe the impact of race and ethnicity on surrogate and clinical end points related to anticoagulation and discuss racial or ethnic considerations for prescribing anticoagulants. Methods: A PubMed and MEDLINE search of clinical trials published between 1950 and May 2018 was conducted using search terms related to anticoagulation, specific anticoagulant drugs, race, and ethnicity. References of identified studies were also reviewed. English-language human studies on safety or efficacy of anticoagulants reporting data for different races or ethnicities were eligible for inclusion. Results: Seventeen relevant studies were identified. The majority of major trials reviewed for inclusion either did not include representative populations or did not report on the racial breakdown of participants. Racial differences in pharmacokinetics, dosing requirements, drug response, and/or safety end points were identified for unfractionated heparin, enoxaparin, argatroban, warfarin, rivaroxaban, and edoxaban. Conclusions: Race appears to influence drug concentrations, dosing, or safety for some but not all direct oral anticoagulants. This information should be considered when selecting anticoagulant therapy for nonwhite individuals.

scholarly journals Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Temporal Trends of Myocardial Infarction Hospitalizations Among Pregnant Women in the United States: 2009-2018

2021 ◽  
Vol 5 (2) ◽  
pp. 200-203
Author(s):  
Deepa Dongarwar ◽  
Brisa Garcia ◽  
Nisha Jacob ◽  
Hamisu Salihu
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Myocardial Infarction ◽  
Pregnant Women ◽  
Race And Ethnicity ◽  
Temporal Trends ◽  
Ethnic Disparities ◽  
The United States ◽  
Entire Study ◽  
Creative Commons ◽  
Race Ethnicity

There has been an increase in the incidence of Myocardial Infarction (MI) among pregnant women in the United States. There have been no studies examining the trends in the rates of gestational MI hospitalizations by race/ethnicity;and therefore, we undertook this study. No prior studies have examined the trends in the rates of gestational MI hospitalizations by race and ethnicity. In this study, we examined temporal trends of MI-related hospitalizations among pregnant women using the Nationwide Inpatient Sample (NIS) dataset from 2009 to 2018. We performed joinpoint regression analyses to assess trends in the rates of MI by race/ethnicity during the study period. Overall, there was an increase in the rates of MI among pregnant women during the study period (from 9.7 per 100,000 hospitalizations in 2009 to 18.1 per 100,000 hospitalizations in 2018) with an average annual percentage change (AAPC) of 7.2, (95% Confidence Interval (CI)=[4.0, 10.5]. The overall rate of MI was highest in non-Hispanic (NH)-Blacks and the greatest increments in rates of MI-related hospitalizations were noted in NH-Blacks during 2013-2018, and in Hispanics during the entire study period (2009-2018). NH-Blacks and Hispanics bear a disproportionately high burden of MI among pregnant women in the US. More worrisome is the first-ever reported finding in this study of a widening Black-White disparity in MI-related hospitalizations over the past decade.   Copyright © Dongarwar et al. Published by Global Health and Education Projects, Inc. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License CC BY 4.0.

Impact of US population demographic changes on projected incident cancer cases from 2019 to 2045 in three major cancer types.

2020 ◽  
Vol 38 (15_suppl) ◽  
pp. e19044-e19044
Author(s):  
Jimmy Nguyen ◽  
Pavel Napalkov ◽  
Nicole Richie ◽  
Stella Arndorfer ◽  
Marko Zivkovic ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Ethnic Minorities ◽  
The United States ◽  
Census Bureau ◽  
Demographic Changes ◽  
Racial And Ethnic Minorities ◽  
The Us ◽  
Race Ethnicity ◽  
Us Census ◽  
Incident Cases ◽  
Population Demographic

e19044 Background: The United States (US) Census Bureau has forecasted an unprecedented shift in the US demographics by 2045, in which there will be no single majority race/ethnicity. Due to well-characterized health disparities among different races/ethnicities in oncology and projected demographic changes, it is of interest to assess changes in the burden of three most frequent cancers: breast cancer (BC) for women, prostate cancer (PC) for men, and colorectal cancer (CRC) for both genders between 2019 and 2045. Methods: Historical age-adjusted rates (AARs) for BC in women, PC in men, and CRC in patients of all ages and stratified by race/ethnicity were collected from the SEER 18 database for 2000-15 period. AARs for cancers of interest were analyzed in Joinpoint Regression Program to obtain an average annual percent change (AAPC) for 2000-15. AARs were then projected to 2045 by assuming the rate behavior is equal to the AAPC. Projected absolute cases per 100,000 were generated by multiplying projected AARs with the associated projected population, retrieved from the US Census Bureau 2017 National Population Projects, and dividing by 100,000. The absolute change in projected patient numbers of cancer cases by race/ethnicity were assessed between 2019 and 2045. Results: From 2019 to 2045, a decrease of 4% is expected in the White Non-Hispanic (WNH) population while the Black (B), Hispanic (H), and Asian/Pacific Islander (API) populations are projected to increase 24%, 54%, and 57%, respectively. In the same time period, the projected number of BC incident cases for women of all ages decreased by 1% in WNH while the B, WH, and API populations were projected to increase 72%, 98%, and 120%, respectively. In both genders of all ages, a 39% and 17% reduction in the number of CRC incident cases in the WNH and B is expected compared to a 61% and 11% increase in the WH and API populations, respectively. Given observed reduction in PC incidence, especially in men 65+, the number of incident PC cases is projected to decrease by 2045 for all included races/ethnicities. Conclusions: Among racial and ethnic minorities, an increase in the number of BC and CRC cases is expected between 2019 and 2045. Projected decrease in PC cases is likely a result of decrease in incidence rates between 2010 and 2015 and should be assessed as new data become available. Currently, racial and ethnic minorities comprise < 20% of patients enrolled in clinical trials, demonstrating the need to understand biologic and social underpinnings of disparities in clinical outcomes in underrepresented groups.

Americanness and the “Other” Americans

2020 ◽  
Vol 1 (3) ◽  
pp. 396-429
Author(s):  
Stacey Greene ◽  
Gabrielle Gray ◽  
Niambi Michele Carter ◽  
Ray Block
Keyword(s):  
Political Participation ◽  
Ethnic Groups ◽  
Ethnic Minorities ◽  
Race And Ethnicity ◽  
Sense Of Belonging ◽  
American Identity ◽  
The Other ◽  
Racial And Ethnic Minorities ◽  
The Impact ◽  
Political Actions

American identity has become a racialized norm that is primarily applied to those racially identified as White. We examine what it means to be an American from the perspective of racial and ethnic minorities who may not be viewed as prototypical Americans. Because we know comparatively little about what American identity means for those who are not White, it is important to understand this attachment in order to understand how “other” Americans articulate their identity and how their political actions and attitudes are influenced by those sentiments. Using the 2016 Collaborative Multiracial Post-Election Survey, we examine attachment to American identity for racial and ethnic minorities (i.e., Blacks, Asians, and Latino/a people) to evaluate levels of political participation and sentiments toward discrimination. Using a novel measure of Americanness (measured here as the extent to which people feel “allegiance” to America and their sense of “belonging” as Americans) we describe the differences between how racial and ethnic groups view their American identity, and how that perception influences electoral and nonelectoral participation. We find not only that there are differences in how various groups attach to American identity, but also that the impact of this identity attachment on electoral and nonelectoral participation is moderated by race and ethnicity.

Prejudice and the Medical Profession: A Five-Year Update

2009 ◽  
Vol 37 (1) ◽  
pp. 118-133 ◽  
Author(s):  
Peter A. Clark
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Health Care ◽  
Ethnic Minorities ◽  
Health Care System ◽  
Ethnic Disparities ◽  
The United States ◽  
Institute Of Medicine ◽  
Racial And Ethnic Minorities ◽  
Wide Range ◽  
Care System

Over the past decades the mortality rate in the United States has decreased and life expectancy has increased. Yet a number of recent studies have drawn Americans attention to the fact that racial and ethnic disparities persist in health care. It is clear that the U.S. health care system is not only flawed for many reasons including basic injustices, but may be the cause of both injury and death for members of racial and ethnic minorities.In 2002, an Institute of Medicine (IOM) report requested by Congress listed more than 100 studies documenting a wide range of disparities in the United States health care system. This report found that people belonging to racial and ethnic minorities often receive lower quality of health care than do people of European descent, even when their medical insurance coverage and income levels are the same as that of the latter.

scholarly journals Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Heart and Cerebrovascular Disease Deaths During the COVID-19 Pandemic in the United States

Circulation ◽  
2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Rishi Wadhera ◽  
Jose F. Figueroa ◽  
Fatima Rodriguez ◽  
Michael Liu ◽  
Wei Tian ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Heart Disease ◽  
Cerebrovascular Disease ◽  
Ethnic Minorities ◽  
Minority Group ◽  
Ethnic Disparities ◽  
The United States ◽  
Race Ethnicity ◽  
Racial Ethnic ◽  
Hispanic White

Background: Cardiovascular deaths increased during the early phase of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States. However, it is unclear whether racial/ethnic minorities have experienced a disproportionate rise in heart disease and cerebrovascular disease deaths. Methods: We used the National Center for Health Statistics to identify heart disease and cerebrovascular disease deaths for non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic Asian, and Hispanic individuals from March-August 2020 (pandemic period), as well as for the corresponding months in 2019 (historical control). We determined the age- and sex-standardized deaths per million by race/ethnicity for each year. We then fit a modified Poisson model with robust standard errors to compare change in deaths by race/ethnicity for each condition in 2020 vs. 2019. Results: There were a total of 339,076 heart disease and 76,767 cerebrovascular disease deaths from March through August 2020, compared to 321,218 and 72,190 deaths during the same months in 2019. Heart disease deaths increased during the pandemic in 2020, compared with the corresponding period in 2019, for non-Hispanic White (age-sex standardized deaths per million, 1234.2 vs. 1208.7; risk ratio for death [RR] 1.02, 95% CI 1.02-1.03), non-Hispanic Black (1783.7 vs. 1503.8; RR 1.19, 1.17-1.20), non-Hispanic Asian (685.7 vs. 577.4; RR 1.19, 1.15-1.22), and Hispanic (968.5 vs. 820.4, RR 1.18, 1.16-1.20) populations. Cerebrovascular disease deaths also increased for non-Hispanic White (268.7 vs. 258.2; RR 1.04, 95% CI 1.03-1.05), non-Hispanic Black (430.7 vs. 379.7; RR 1.13, 95% CI 1.10-1.17), non-Hispanic Asian (236.5 vs. 207.4; RR 1.15, 1.09-1.21), and Hispanic (264.4 vs. 235.9; RR 1.12, 1.08-1.16) populations. For both heart disease and cerebrovascular disease deaths, each racial and ethnic minority group experienced a larger relative increase in deaths than the non-Hispanic White population (interaction term, p<0.001). Conclusions: During the COVID-19 pandemic in the US, Black, Hispanic, and Asian populations experienced a disproportionate rise in deaths due to heart disease and cerebrovascular disease, suggesting that racial/ethnic minorities have been most impacted by the indirect effects of the pandemic. Public health and policy strategies are needed to mitigate the short- and long-term adverse effects of the pandemic on the cardiovascular health of minority populations.

Investigation of an ethnic predisposition to developing brain metastases (BM) in Asian patients with colorectal cancer (CRC).

2019 ◽  
Vol 37 (15_suppl) ◽  
pp. e15023-e15023
Author(s):  
Kerri McGovern ◽  
Teresa Rodriguez ◽  
Melissa H Smith ◽  
Antonia Maloney ◽  
Wasif M. Saif
Keyword(s):  
Overall Survival ◽  
Molecular Markers ◽  
Ethnic Disparities ◽  
The United States ◽  
Treatment Modalities ◽  
Increased Risk ◽  
Incidence And Mortality ◽  
Race Ethnicity ◽  
The Impact ◽  
Hispanic White

e15023 Background: CRC, the third most common cancer in the United States, carries racial/ethnic disparities in both incidence and mortality. With availability of effective systemic therapies, the life of CRC patients can be prolonged which thereby increases the risk of metastases at uncommon sites, such as the brain. We report our investigation into the impact of race/ethnicity on the incidence of BM in CRC patients using retrospective data (2010 – 2018) at a single institution. Methods: We retrospectively reviewed patients diagnosed with CRC and collected data on age, race/ethnicity, stage, treatment modalities, metastatic sites, and survival. Race and ethnicity were defined in accordance with federal standards set by the U.S. Census. Following this, race/ethnicity was self-declared and/or based on the primary language declared and categorized as non-Hispanic White, Hispanic White, non–Hispanic Black, Asian, or Unknown/Other. CRC location was classified as right-sided, left-sided or rectal. Results: We identified 264 CRC patients (median age: 61; range: 38 - 99). Among them 123 identified as non-Hispanic white, 28 non-Hispanic black, 26 Hispanic white, and 9 declared Other. There were 76 (29%) who identified as Asian. Of those 76 patients, 5 (7%) developed BM. All 5 patients were male and stage IV at initial diagnosis. BM was a late stage phenomenon with rectal primary and lung metastases seemly associated with an increased risk in the specific cohort. Molecular markers such as KRAS were available in 3 patients without clear association. Median time to development of BM was 29 months (range: 26 - 33). Median overall survival after BM diagnosis was 5.5 months (range: 4 - 11). Overall survival was longest for the patient who had both radiation and surgery. Conclusions: Our study showed an incidence of BM of 7% in the Asian sub-population compared to the historical control of 0.6 – 3.2% in the overall population. These results at the least warrant further investigation in a larger patient population of BM in CRC patients with emphasis on molecular markers. Recognition of BM in CRC patients is clinically relevant secondary to multiple lines of therapy as mentioned earlier and its grave impact on outcome.

Race, Ethnicity, and Education Policy

2014 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jennifer L. Hochschild ◽  
Francis X. Shen
Keyword(s):  
No Child Left Behind ◽  
School Choice ◽  
Education Policy ◽  
Asian American ◽  
Race And Ethnicity ◽  
The United States ◽  
Future Research ◽  
Core Element ◽  
Race Ethnicity ◽  
The Impact

Persistent white–black disparities in education outcomes, combined with the growing presence of Asian American and especially Latino children, will make race and ethnicity a core element of education policy in the United States in the twenty-first century. This chapter explores, without resolving, a series of questions at the intersection of race, ethnicity, and American education policy. We review research evidence on persistent racial achievement gaps, race and school choice, the impact of No Child Left Behind, urban school governance, segregation, and the role of the courts in desegregation and school finance. We find that most questions about the best policies on these topics have no clear answers for several reasons explored in the chapter. Furthermore, future research must be reconceptualized since standard assumptions about group boundaries and group interests warrant reexamination. The study of education needs better data, improved methodologies, closer attention to class dynamics, and less partisan scholarship.

scholarly journals Racial and ethnic determinants of Covid-19 risk

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Chun-Han Lo ◽  
Long H. Nguyen ◽  
David A. Drew ◽  
Mark S. Graham ◽  
Erica T. Warner ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Risk Factors ◽  
Ethnic Minorities ◽  
Race And Ethnicity ◽  
Middle Eastern ◽  
Smartphone Application ◽  
The United States ◽  
Racial And Ethnic Minorities ◽  
Novel Coronavirus ◽  
Minority Participants ◽  
Hispanic White

ABSTRACTBackgroundRacial and ethnic minorities have disproportionately high hospitalization rates and mortality related to the novel coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19). There are comparatively scant data on race and ethnicity as determinants of infection risk.MethodsWe used a smartphone application (beginning March 24, 2020 in the United Kingdom [U.K.] and March 29, 2020 in the United States [U.S.]) to recruit 2,414,601 participants who reported their race/ethnicity through May 25, 2020 and employed logistic regression to determine the adjusted odds ratios (aORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for a positive Covid-19 test among racial and ethnic groups.ResultsWe documented 8,858 self-reported cases of Covid-19 among 2,259,841 non-Hispanic white; 79 among 9,615 Hispanic; 186 among 18,176 Black; 598 among 63,316 Asian; and 347 among 63,653 other racial minority participants. Compared with non-Hispanic white participants, the risk for a positive Covid-19 test was increased across racial minorities (aORs ranging from 1.24 to 3.51). After adjustment for socioeconomic indices and Covid-19 exposure risk factors, the associations (aOR [95% CI]) were attenuated but remained significant for Hispanic (1.58 [1.24-2.02]) and Black participants (2.56 [1.93-3.39]) in the U.S. and South Asian (1.52 [1.38-1.67]) and Middle Eastern participants (1.56 [1.25-1.95]) in the U.K. A higher risk of Covid-19 and seeking or receiving treatment was also observed for several racial/ethnic minority subgroups.ConclusionsOur results demonstrate an increase in Covid-19 risk among racial and ethnic minorities not completely explained by other risk factors for Covid-19, comorbidities, and sociodemographic characteristics. Further research investigating these disparities are needed to inform public health measures.

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