Girlz II women: Age-grading, language change and stylistic variation

2013 ◽  
Vol 17 (2) ◽  
pp. 143-179 ◽  
Author(s):  
John Rickford ◽  
Mackenzie Price
2021 ◽  
Vol 7 (s2) ◽  
Author(s):  
Daniel Schreier

Abstract The correlation between external factors such as age, gender, ethnic group membership and language variation is one of the stalwarts of sociolinguistic theory. The repertoire of individual members of speaker groups, vis-à-vis community-wide variation, represents a somewhat slippery ground for developing and testing models of variation and change and has been researched with reference to accommodation (Bell 1984), style shifting (Rickford, John R. & MacKenzie Price. 2013. Girlz II women: Age-grading, language change and stylistic variation. Journal of Sociolinguistics 17. 143–179) and language change generally (Labov, William. 2001. Principles of linguistic change, vol. 2: Social factors. Oxford: Blackwell). This paper presents and assesses some first quantitative evidence that non-mobile older speakers from Tristan da Cunha, an island in the South Atlantic Ocean, who grew up in an utterly isolated speech community, vary and shift according to external interview parameters (interviewer, topic, place of interview). However, while they respond to the formality of the context, they display variation (both regarding speakers and variables) that is not in line with the constraints attested elsewhere. These findings are assessed with focus on the acquisition of sociolinguistic competence in third-age speakers (particularly style-shifting, Labov, William. 1964. Stages in the acquisition of Standard English. In Roger Shuy, Alva Davis & Robert Hogan (eds.), Social Dialects and Language Learning, 77–104. Champaign: National Council of Teachers of English) and across the life-span generally.


2020 ◽  
Vol 6 (2) ◽  
pp. 11-21
Author(s):  
Lea Bauernfeind

This paper investigates American singer and actress Jennifer Lopez’s use of the sociolinguistic variables (ing), PRICE, and TRAP through a longitudinal study of readily available interviews over the course of 16 years. The study is an example of the same speaker of English showing lifespan change in one variable (TRAP), and age-grading in two others ((ing) and PRICE). The findings show that different variables can pattern differently, and that social context plays an important role in these linguistic developments.


2019 ◽  
Vol 31 (1) ◽  
pp. 43-67 ◽  
Author(s):  
Derek Denis ◽  
Matt Hunt Gardner ◽  
Marisa Brook ◽  
Sali A. Tagliamonte

AbstractA key component of Labov's (2001:411) socially motivated projection model of language change is the hypothesis that adolescents and preadolescents undergo a process of vernacular reorganization, which leads to a “seamless” progression of changes in progress. Between the ages of approximately five and 17, children and adolescents increase the “frequency, extent, scope, or specificity” of changes in progress along the community trajectory (Labov, 2007:346). Evidence of advancement via vernacular reorganization during this life stage has come from peaks in the apparent-time trajectory of a change around the age of 17 (e.g., Labov, 2001; Tagliamonte & D'Arcy, 2009). However, such peaks do not rule out the alternative explanations of retrograde change or age-grading. This paper presents both apparent time and real-time evidence for vernacular reorganization. We observe the arrowhead formation—a counterpart of the adolescent peak—for quotative be like in a trend study of adolescents and young adults in Toronto, Canada. Our results rule out the alternative explanations for previously observed adolescent peaks.


2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
◽  
Alexandra Birchfield

<p>This thesis is a study of the variation in relative marker choice by speakers of Auckland English. The data used in this study was collected as part of “Breaking Babel – Rethinking Language Change in a super-diverse city” (Meyerhoff et al. 2015). The thesis investigates the syntactic and social conditioning on the variation of the complementisers used to introduce relative clauses in the speech of a diverse group of Aucklanders. As a super-diverse city with a rapidly changing sociolinguistic profile, Auckland offers a rich source of data. This research explores how syntactic variation marks speakers of “Auckland English”.  This work addresses several key research questions which centre on whether there is evidence of language change for this variable, and if so where has the change been initiated and by whom is it lead. Further, how does the variation in Auckland English compare other communities studied, both in terms of studies of relative clause variation and variation in super-diverse cities.  These questions derive from an exploration of the history of relative clauses in English. In chapter 2, I review how the current variable system of relative markers developed and how they have been treated both by syntacticians and variationists in previous literature. The purpose of a (restrictive) relative clause is to delimit the denotational reference of an antecedent head nominal that it post-modifies (Huddleston & Pullum 2002: 1034–1035). As such, variation in the choice of complementiser that introduces relative clauses tells us a great deal about how speakers specify information. The variability of relative markers is highly circumscribed (Ball 1996, Levey 2014). Nevertheless, the syntactic and social factors governing their distribution vary between speech communities and can offer insight into the linguistic profiles of these communities (Tagliamonte et al 2005, D’Arcy and Tagliamonte 2010).  This study analyses over 2000 tokens of relative clauses, coded for syntactic environment and speaker age, sex and community. Three communities, chosen for their differing demographic profiles, are sampled across Auckland. Significant predictors of relative marker choice are then compared to other studies of relative clause variation. This thesis then explores (i) which factors are universal or common predictors of relativiser choice, (ii) which factors index Auckland English and (iii) which are markers of specific communities within Auckland.  Previous studies of superdiverse cities (cf. Cheshire et al. 2015) have shown that the input of many diverse language varieties into a community can lead to large scale innovation and change. I explore the variation in relative markers in Auckland English in this context. Little evidence of language change taking place is found in this study and in fact, social factors such as age-grading patterns may suggest stable variation. There is some evidence of levelling (Trudgill 2004) in the most diverse of the three communities surveyed. The thesis concludes with a discussion of the significance of these results, both to the study of relative clauses and linguistic variation in general.</p>


2020 ◽  
Vol 4 (1) ◽  
pp. 55-72
Author(s):  
Uri Horesh

Abstract The study of variation in Arabic vernaculars has come a long way since its beginnings as a misguided endeavor to compare features in these contemporary dialects to cognate features in Standard Arabic (Classical or Modern) and view any differences as results of language change. We now recognize that the dialects and Standard Arabic have had different trajectories in different places and over a long period of time. The current study attempts to assess variation in a local variety of Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) and explore the methodological and theoretical advantages to consider what we already know about variation in the vernacular spoken by the same community whose reading in the Standard we are investigating. The paper draws a distinction between Prescribed MSA and a local variety thereof, as attested in recordings of a text read aloud by speakers of a Palestinian dialect, which were collected as part of a broader battery of sociolinguistic interviews in the speakers’ two dominant languages, Arabic and Hebrew. This is a pilot study, in which variationist methods of quantification and contextual analysis were employed, with the hope for setting the stage for more elaborate studies on the various stylistic repertoires available to speakers of Arabic.


Author(s):  
Gillian Sankoff

Interest in longitudinal sociolinguistic research has grown considerably over the past decade. This chapter notes that the major reason for this surge of interest is that longitudinal research has begun to answer some of the most important questions that relate language variation and language change. It examines what evidence longitudinal studies can provide about stability versus change, the relationship between language change and age grading, and whether longitudinal sociolinguistic evidence influences accepted wisdom on the relative stability of people’s grammars in adult life. Longitudinal studies are crucial in resolving these ambiguities of interpretation, and real-time data has now often been used to enrich apparent time interpretations.


2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
◽  
Alexandra Birchfield

<p>This thesis is a study of the variation in relative marker choice by speakers of Auckland English. The data used in this study was collected as part of “Breaking Babel – Rethinking Language Change in a super-diverse city” (Meyerhoff et al. 2015). The thesis investigates the syntactic and social conditioning on the variation of the complementisers used to introduce relative clauses in the speech of a diverse group of Aucklanders. As a super-diverse city with a rapidly changing sociolinguistic profile, Auckland offers a rich source of data. This research explores how syntactic variation marks speakers of “Auckland English”.  This work addresses several key research questions which centre on whether there is evidence of language change for this variable, and if so where has the change been initiated and by whom is it lead. Further, how does the variation in Auckland English compare other communities studied, both in terms of studies of relative clause variation and variation in super-diverse cities.  These questions derive from an exploration of the history of relative clauses in English. In chapter 2, I review how the current variable system of relative markers developed and how they have been treated both by syntacticians and variationists in previous literature. The purpose of a (restrictive) relative clause is to delimit the denotational reference of an antecedent head nominal that it post-modifies (Huddleston & Pullum 2002: 1034–1035). As such, variation in the choice of complementiser that introduces relative clauses tells us a great deal about how speakers specify information. The variability of relative markers is highly circumscribed (Ball 1996, Levey 2014). Nevertheless, the syntactic and social factors governing their distribution vary between speech communities and can offer insight into the linguistic profiles of these communities (Tagliamonte et al 2005, D’Arcy and Tagliamonte 2010).  This study analyses over 2000 tokens of relative clauses, coded for syntactic environment and speaker age, sex and community. Three communities, chosen for their differing demographic profiles, are sampled across Auckland. Significant predictors of relative marker choice are then compared to other studies of relative clause variation. This thesis then explores (i) which factors are universal or common predictors of relativiser choice, (ii) which factors index Auckland English and (iii) which are markers of specific communities within Auckland.  Previous studies of superdiverse cities (cf. Cheshire et al. 2015) have shown that the input of many diverse language varieties into a community can lead to large scale innovation and change. I explore the variation in relative markers in Auckland English in this context. Little evidence of language change taking place is found in this study and in fact, social factors such as age-grading patterns may suggest stable variation. There is some evidence of levelling (Trudgill 2004) in the most diverse of the three communities surveyed. The thesis concludes with a discussion of the significance of these results, both to the study of relative clauses and linguistic variation in general.</p>


Diachronica ◽  
2000 ◽  
Vol 17 (2) ◽  
pp. 249-292 ◽  
Author(s):  
Richard Cameron

SUMMARY Social and stylistic patterns which indicate language change in progress may also indicate changes of social identity across time and place. Research into three strategies for framing direct quotations in Puerto Rican Spanish finds a potential case of change from below. Yet, social and stylistic patterning of the variable may also be a function of the evolving identities of individuals within the community as they age, enter the job market, and find new places to live and people to speak with. The case for change in progress becomes apparent through a close comparison of the direct quotation variable with the stable variable of word final S. Comparable analyses are provided of word final S and direct quotation strategies across stylistic and social dimensions of San Juan, Puerto Rico. Stable word final S reveals slight age grading, a match between stylistic and social stratification, and a female favoring of standard forms. Moreover, children reproduce the class rankings which characterize adults. The variable of direct quotation strategies diverges considerably. An apparent time difference is traced by two of the three direct quotation strategies, with females favoring one and males the other. Peak probabilities of nonstandard or innovative use occur among teenagers for both female and male speakers. Other features include a mismatch between stylistic and social stratification and a striking reversal of class rankings between adults and children. A competing interpretation of the data finds evidence for age grading, the influence of gender identity in the teen years and subsequent marketplace prescriptivism in the post-teen years. Because a balanced interpretation of the data calls for two competing interpretations, two are provided. RÉSUMÉ Les comportements sociaux et stylistiques qui indiquent un changement linguistique en cours peuvent également être indices de changements d’identité sociale à travers le temps et l’espace. Nos recherches sur trois stratégies de citation directe en espagnol portoricain identifient un cas potentiel de changement à partir des couches sociales inferieures. Pourtant, le comportement social et stylistique de cette variable pourrait aussi refléter l’évolution identitaire des individus dans la communauté lorsqu’ils vieillissent, entrent sur le marché du travail, et changent de quartiers et d’interlocuteurs. Une comparaison serrée de cette variable de la citation directe avec la variable stable du S en position finale permet d’avancer l’hypothèse d’un changement en cours. La variable stable du S en fin de mot est légèrement stratifiée selon l’âge, et présente une correspondance entre les stratifications stylistique et sociale ainsi qu’une préférence pour les formes standardes chez les femmes. Qui plus est, on retrouve chez les enfants la même stratification sociale qui caractérise le comportement des adultes. La variable des stratégies de citation directe s’écarte considerablement de cette configuration. Une difference en temps apparent émerge dans deux des trois stratégies de citation directe, dont l’une est préférée par les femmes et l’autre par les hommes. La probabilité d’emploi des formes non standardes ou innovatrices atteint son niveau le plus élevé chez les adolescents des deux sexes. Cette variable est marquée aussi par l’absence de convergence entre les stratifications sociale et stylistique, alors que la stratification sociale par classes connaît une inversion frappante entre les adultes et les enfants. Alternativement, on peut interpréter ces données comme des indices de stratification par l’âge, de l’influence de l’identité du genre pendant l’adolescence, et ensuite du normativisme imposé aux adultes par le marché du travail. Puisqu’une vision équilibrée des données demande deux interprétations concurrentes, on en fournit deux. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Soziale und stilistische Muster, die fortschreitende sprachliche Veränderungen andeuten, können auch ein Hinweis für ort- und zeitunabhängige Veränderungen sozialer Identität sein. Forschung, die sich mit drei Strategien direkten Zitierens in puertorikanischem Spanisch beschäftigt, kann auf Veränderungen von Unten hinweisen. Soziale und stilistische Muster können auch durch eine sich entwickelnde Identität des Einzelnen in der Gemeinde hervorgerufen werden. Dabei können Faktoren, wie zum Beispiel Alter, das Eintreten in den Arbeitsmarkt, Veränderungen in der Wohnsituation und soziale Kontakte eine Rolle spielen. Fortschreitende sprachliche Veränder- ungen werden durch Vergleiche der Variable direkter Zitate und der Variable s-Wortendung sichtbar. Vergleichende Analysen von s-Wortendung und direkten Zitierstrategien, die mehrere stilistische Kategorien und soziale Gruppen San Juans (Puerto Rico) umfassen, werden in dieser Untersuchung dargestellt. Der beständige Gebrauch von s-Wortendung deutet auf eine altersbedingte Entwicklung, eine Parallele stilistischer und sozialer Schichtung und die Bevorzugung von Standardformen von Frauen hin. Zudem setzen sich bei Kindern Klassenunterschiede Erwachsener fort. Der Gebrauch direkter Zitierstrategien, dahingegen, ist weniger beständig. Altersunterschiede scheinen für den Gebrauch von zwei der drei Zitierstrategien massgeblich zu sein, wobei eine Strategie von Männern und eine von Frauen bevorzugt wird. Die grösste Wahrscheinlichkeit für den nicht-standardisierten und innovativen Gebrauch von Zitierstrategien ist bei weiblichen als auch männlichen Teenagern zu finden. Zudem lässt sich keine klare Verbindung von stilistischen und sozialen Schichten aufzeigen. Dahingegen setzen sich aber bei Kindern Klassenunterschiede Erwachsener nicht fort. Die Daten lassen unterschiedliche Interpretationsmöglichkeiten für altersbedingte Einflüsse, Einflüsse durch Geschlechteridentität in den Teenagerjahren und anschliessende arbeitsmarktbedingte Normen zu. Da die Daten auf mehrere Weisen interpretiert werden können, werden zwei mögliche Interpretationen dargestellt.


Author(s):  
Gillian Sankoff ◽  
Suzanne Evans Wagner

AbstractA previous panel study of 59 speakers of Montreal French showed an increase in inflected futures (IF) at the expense of periphrastic futures (PF) as this population aged, running counter to the direction of historical change: reduction of IF. Matching two samples of speakers across the same time interval by age and social characteristics, the current trend study investigates whether or not this increase reflects retrograde change in the speech community. Results show community stability over the same period, confirming the earlier age grading interpretation and disconfirming any possibility that the disappearance of IF may be reversing. We propose that this pattern of retrograde lifespan change may emerge from a combination of social forces typically found in late stages of language change, with concomitant stylistic effect. Further, such a pattern may suggest the mechanism that creates a very long tail for retreating variants.


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