scholarly journals Neuralized E3 Ubiquitin Protein Ligase 3 Is an Inducible Antiviral Effector That Inhibits Hepatitis C Virus Assembly by Targeting Viral E1 Glycoprotein

2018 ◽  
Vol 92 (21) ◽  
Author(s):  
Yanan Zhao ◽  
Xuezhi Cao ◽  
Mingzhe Guo ◽  
Xuesong Wang ◽  
Tao Yu ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Innate Immunity ◽  
Hepatitis C ◽  
Envelope Glycoprotein ◽  
Biological Function ◽  
Rna Viruses ◽  
Innate Immune ◽  
Hcv Infection ◽  
Ubiquitin Protein Ligase ◽  
Host Innate Immunity ◽  
Insight Into

ABSTRACTHepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a major cause of chronic hepatitis, liver cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. HCV can be sensed by host innate immunity to induce expression of interferons (IFNs) and a number of antiviral effectors. In this study, we found HCV infection induced the expression of neuralized E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 3 (NEURL3), a putative E3 ligase, in a manner that requires the involvement of innate immune sensing but is independent of the IFN action. Furthermore, we showed that NEURL3 inhibited HCV infection while it had little effect on other RNA viruses, including Zika virus (ZIKV), dengue virus (DENV), and vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV). Mechanistic studies demonstrated that NEURL3 inhibited HCV assembly by directly binding HCV envelope glycoprotein E1 to interfere with the E1/E2 heterodimerization, an important prerequisite for virion morphogenesis. Finally, we showed that knockout of NEURL3 significantly enhanced HCV infection. In summary, we identified NEURL3 as a novel inducible antiviral host factor that suppresses HCV assembly. Our results not only shed new insight into how host innate immunity acts against HCV but also revealed a new important biological function for NEURL3.IMPORTANCEThe exact biological function of NEURL3, a putative E3 ligase, remains largely unknown. In this study, we found that NEURL3 could be upregulated upon HCV infection in a manner dependent on pattern recognition receptor-mediated innate immune response. NEURL3 inhibits HCV assembly by directly binding viral E1 envelope glycoprotein to disrupt its interaction with E2, an action that requires its Neuralized homology repeat (NHR) domain but not the RING domain. Furthermore, we found that NEURL3 has a pangenotypic anti-HCV activity and interacts with E1 of genotypes 2a, 1b, 3a, and 6a but does not inhibit other closely related RNA viruses, such as ZIKV, DENV, and VSV. To our knowledge, our study is the first report to demonstrate that NEURL3 functions as an antiviral host factor. Our results not only shed new insight into how host innate immunity acts against HCV, but also revealed a new important biological function for NEURL3.

scholarly journals Pathogen-Associated Molecular Pattern Recognition of Hepatitis C Virus Transmitted/Founder Variants by RIG-I Is Dependent on U-Core Length

2015 ◽  
Vol 89 (21) ◽  
pp. 11056-11068 ◽  
Author(s):  
Alison Kell ◽  
Mark Stoddard ◽  
Hui Li ◽  
Joe Marcotrigiano ◽  
George M. Shaw ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Innate Immunity ◽  
Hepatitis C Virus ◽  
Hepatitis C ◽  
Acute Infection ◽  
Innate Immune ◽  
Hcv Infection ◽  
Immune Signaling ◽  
Molecular Pattern ◽  
Innate Immune Signaling ◽  
Acute Hcv

ABSTRACTDespite the introduction of direct-acting antiviral (DAA) drugs against hepatitis C virus (HCV), infection remains a major public health concern because DAA therapeutics do not prevent reinfection and patients can still progress to chronic liver disease. Chronic HCV infection is supported by a variety of viral immune evasion strategies, but, remarkably, 20% to 30% of acute infections spontaneously clear prior to development of adaptive immune responses, thus implicating innate immunity in resolving acute HCV infection. However, the virus-host interactions regulating acute infection are unknown. Transmission of HCV involves one or a few transmitted/founder (T/F) variants. In infected hepatocytes, the retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I) protein recognizes 5′ triphosphate (5′ppp) of the HCV RNA and a pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP) motif located within the 3′ untranslated region consisting of poly-U/UC. PAMP binding activates RIG-I to induce innate immune signaling and type 1 interferon antiviral defenses. HCV poly-U/UC sequences can differ in length and complexity, suggesting that PAMP diversity in T/F genomes could regulate innate immune control of acute HCV infection. Using 14 unique poly-U/UC sequences from HCV T/F genomes recovered from acute-infection patients, we tested whether RIG-I recognition and innate immune activation correlate with PAMP sequence characteristics. We show that T/F variants are recognized by RIG-I in a manner dependent on length of the U-core motif of the poly-U/UC PAMP and are recognized by RIG-I to induce innate immune responses that restrict acute infection. PAMP recognition of T/F HCV variants by RIG-I may therefore impart innate immune signaling and HCV restriction to impact acute-phase-to-chronic-phase transition.IMPORTANCERecognition of nonself molecular patterns such as those seen with viral nucleic acids is an essential step in triggering the immune response to virus infection. Innate immunity is induced by hepatitis C virus infection through the recognition of viral RNA by the cellular RIG-I protein, where RIG-I recognizes a poly-uridine/cytosine motif in the viral genome. Variation within this motif may provide an immune evasion strategy for transmitted/founder viruses during acute infection. Using 14 unique poly-U/UC sequences from HCV T/F genomes recovered from acutely infected HCV patients, we demonstrate that RIG-I binding and activation of innate immunity depend primarily on the length of the uridine core within this motif. T/F variants found in acute infection contained longer U cores within the motif and could activate RIG-I and induce innate immune signaling sufficient to restrict viral infection. Thus, recognition of T/F variants by RIG-I could significantly impact the transition from acute to chronic infection.

scholarly journals Acute Liver Damage Associated with Innate Immune Activation in a Small Nonhuman Primate Model of Hepacivirus Infection

2016 ◽  
Vol 90 (20) ◽  
pp. 9153-9162 ◽  
Author(s):  
Cordelia Manickam ◽  
Premeela Rajakumar ◽  
Lynn Wachtman ◽  
Joshua A. Kramer ◽  
Amanda J. Martinot ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Innate Immunity ◽  
Hepatitis C ◽  
Immune Responses ◽  
Nk Cells ◽  
Nk Cell ◽  
Acute Infection ◽  
Innate Immune ◽  
Hcv Infection ◽  
Common Marmosets ◽  
Viral Loads

ABSTRACTDespite its importance in shaping adaptive immune responses, viral clearance, and immune-based inflammation, tissue-specific innate immunity remains poorly characterized for hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection due to the lack of access to acutely infected tissues. In this study, we evaluated the impact of natural killer (NK) cells and myeloid (mDCs) and plasmacytoid (pDCs) dendritic cells on control of virus replication and virus-induced pathology caused by another, more rapidly resolving hepacivirus, GB virus B (GBV-B), in infections of common marmosets. High plasma and liver viral loads and robust hepatitis characterized acute GBV-B infection, and while viremia was generally cleared by 2 to 3 months postinfection, hepatitis and liver fibrosis persisted after clearance. Coinciding with peak viral loads and liver pathology, the levels of NK cells, mDCs, and pDCs in the liver increased up to 3-fold. Although no obvious numerical changes in peripheral innate cells occurred, circulating NK cells exhibited increased perforin and Ki67 expression levels and increased surface expression of CXCR3. These data suggested that increased NK cell arming and proliferation as well as tissue trafficking may be associated with influx into the liver during acute infection. Indeed, NK cell frequencies in the liver positively correlated with plasma (R= 0.698;P= 0.015) and liver (R= 0.567;P= 0.057) viral loads. Finally, soluble factors associated with NK cells and DCs, including gamma interferon (IFN-γ) and RANTES, were increased in acute infection and also were associated with viral loads and hepatitis. Collectively, the findings showed that mobilization of local and circulating innate immune responses was linked to acute virus-induced hepatitis, and potentially to resolution of GBV-B infection, and our results may provide insight into similar mechanisms in HCV infection.IMPORTANCEHepatitis C virus (HCV) infection has created a global health crisis, and despite new effective antivirals, it is still a leading cause of liver disease and death worldwide. Recent evidence suggests that innate immunity may be a potential therapeutic target for HCV, but it may also be a correlate of increased disease. Due to a lack of access to human tissues with acute HCV infection, in this study we evaluated the role of innate immunity in resolving infection with a hepacivirus, GBV-B, in common marmosets. Collectively, our data suggest that NK cell and DC mobilization in acute hepacivirus infection can dampen virus replication but also regulate acute and chronic liver damage. How these two opposing effects on the host may be modulated in future therapeutic and vaccine approaches warrants further study.

scholarly journals NLRX1 Mediates MAVS Degradation To Attenuate the Hepatitis C Virus-Induced Innate Immune Response through PCBP2

2017 ◽  
Vol 91 (23) ◽  
Author(s):  
Yuwen Qin ◽  
Binbin Xue ◽  
Chunyan Liu ◽  
Xiaohong Wang ◽  
Renyun Tian ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Immune Response ◽  
Innate Immunity ◽  
Hepatitis C Virus ◽  
Hepatitis C ◽  
Signaling Pathway ◽  
Innate Immune Response ◽  
Innate Immune ◽  
Hcv Infection ◽  
Negative Regulator ◽  
Immune Mediated

ABSTRACT Activation of innate immunity is essential for host cells to restrict the spread of invading viruses and other pathogens. However, attenuation or termination of signaling is also necessary for preventing immune-mediated tissue damage and spontaneous autoimmunity. Here, we identify nucleotide binding oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptor X1 (NLRX1) as a negative regulator of the mitochondrial antiviral signaling protein (MAVS)-mediated signaling pathway during hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. The depletion of NLRX1 enhances the HCV-triggered activation of interferon (IFN) signaling and causes the suppression of HCV propagation in hepatocytes. NLRX1, a HCV-inducible protein, interacts with MAVS and mediates the K48-linked polyubiquitination and subsequent degradation of MAVS via the proteasomal pathway. Moreover, poly(rC) binding protein 2 (PCBP2) interacts with NLRX1 to participate in the NLRX1-induced degradation of MAVS and the inhibition of antiviral responses during HCV infection. Mutagenic analyses further revealed that the NOD of NLRX1 is essential for NLRX1 to interact with PCBP2 and subsequently induce MAVS degradation. Our study unlocks a key mechanism of the fine-tuning of innate immunity by which NLRX1 restrains the retinoic acid-inducible gene I-like receptor (RLR)-MAVS signaling cascade by recruiting PCBP2 to MAVS for inducing MAVS degradation through the proteasomal pathway. NLRX1, a negative regulator of innate immunity, is a pivotal host factor for HCV to establish persistent infection. IMPORTANCE Innate immunity needs to be tightly regulated to maximize the antiviral response and minimize immune-mediated pathology, but the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. In this study, we report that NLRX1 is a proviral host factor for HCV infection and functions as a negative regulator of the HCV-triggered innate immune response. NLRX1 recruits PCBP2 to MAVS and induces the K48-linked polyubiquitination and degradation of MAVS, leading to the negative regulation of the IFN signaling pathway and promoting HCV infection. Overall, this study provides intriguing insights into how innate immunity is regulated during viral infection.

scholarly journals Hepatitis C Virus Infection Is Inhibited by a Noncanonical Antiviral Signaling Pathway Targeted by NS3-NS4A

2019 ◽  
Vol 93 (23) ◽  
Author(s):  
Christine Vazquez ◽  
Chin Yee Tan ◽  
Stacy M. Horner
Keyword(s):  
Hepatitis C ◽  
Viral Replication ◽  
Signaling Pathway ◽  
Transmembrane Domain ◽  
Innate Immune ◽  
Hcv Infection ◽  
Interferon Induction ◽  
Innate Immune Signaling ◽  
Huh7 Cells ◽  
Irf3 Activation

ABSTRACT The hepatitis C virus (HCV) NS3-NS4A protease complex is required for viral replication and is the major viral innate immune evasion factor. NS3-NS4A evades antiviral innate immunity by inactivating several proteins, including MAVS, the signaling adaptor for RIG-I and MDA5, and Riplet, an E3 ubiquitin ligase that activates RIG-I. Here, we identified a Tyr-16-Phe (Y16F) change in the NS4A transmembrane domain that prevents NS3-NS4A targeting of Riplet but not MAVS. This Y16F substitution reduces HCV replication in Huh7 cells, but not in Huh-7.5 cells, known to lack RIG-I signaling. Surprisingly, deletion of RIG-I in Huh7 cells did not restore Y16F viral replication. Rather, we found that Huh-7.5 cells lack Riplet expression and that the addition of Riplet to these cells reduced HCV Y16F replication, whereas the addition of Riplet lacking the RING domain restored HCV Y16F replication. In addition, TBK1 inhibition or IRF3 deletion in Huh7 cells was sufficient to restore HCV Y16F replication, and the Y16F protease lacked the ability to prevent IRF3 activation or interferon induction. Taken together, these data reveal that the NS4A Y16 residue regulates a noncanonical Riplet-TBK1-IRF3-dependent, but RIG-I-MAVS-independent, signaling pathway that limits HCV infection. IMPORTANCE The HCV NS3-NS4A protease complex facilitates viral replication by cleaving and inactivating the antiviral innate immune signaling proteins MAVS and Riplet, which are essential for RIG-I activation. NS3-NS4A therefore prevents IRF3 activation and interferon induction during HCV infection. Here, we uncover an amino acid residue within the NS4A transmembrane domain that is essential for inactivation of Riplet but does not affect MAVS cleavage by NS3-NS4A. Our study reveals that Riplet is involved in a RIG-I- and MAVS-independent signaling pathway that activates IRF3 and that this pathway is normally inactivated by NS3-NS4A during HCV infection. Our study selectively uncouples these distinct regulatory mechanisms within NS3-NS4A and defines a new role for Riplet in the antiviral response to HCV. Since Riplet is known to be inhibited by other RNA viruses, such as such influenza A virus, this innate immune signaling pathway may also be important in controlling other RNA virus infections.

scholarly journals Hepatitis C Virus Induces Toll-Like Receptor 4 Expression, Leading to Enhanced Production of Beta Interferon and Interleukin-6

2006 ◽  
Vol 80 (2) ◽  
pp. 866-874 ◽  
Author(s):  
Keigo Machida ◽  
Kevin T. H. Cheng ◽  
Vicky M.-H. Sung ◽  
Alexandra M. Levine ◽  
Steven Foung ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Hepatitis C Virus ◽  
Hepatitis C ◽  
B Cells ◽  
Immune Responses ◽  
Interleukin 6 ◽  
Innate Immune ◽  
Hcv Infection ◽  
Innate Immune Responses ◽  
Altered Expression ◽  
Beta Interferon

ABSTRACT Hepatitis C virus (HCV) induces inflammatory signals, leading to hepatitis, hepatocellular carcinomas, and lymphomas. The mechanism of HCV involvement in the host's innate immune responses has not been well characterized. In this study, we analyzed expression and regulation of the entire panel of toll-like receptors (TLRs) in human B cells following HCV infection in vitro. Among all of the TLRs (TLRs 1 to 10) examined, only TLR4 showed an altered expression (a three- to sevenfold up-regulation) after HCV infection. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells from HCV-infected individuals also showed a higher expression level of TLR4 compared with those of healthy individuals. HCV infection significantly increased beta interferon (IFN-β) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) secretion from B cells, particularly after lipopolysaccharide stimulation. The increased IFN-β and IL-6 production was mediated by TLR4 induction, since the introduction of the small interfering RNA against TLR4 specifically inhibited the HCV-induced cytokine production. Among all of the viral proteins, only NS5A caused TLR4 induction in hepatocytes and B cells. NS5A specifically activated the promoter of the TLR4 gene in both hepatocytes and B cells. In conclusion, HCV infection directly induces TLR4 expression and thereby activates B cells, which may contribute to the host's innate immune responses.

scholarly journals The Interplay between Host Innate Immunity and Hepatitis E Virus

Viruses ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 11 (6) ◽  
pp. 541 ◽  
Author(s):  
Yang Li ◽  
Changbo Qu ◽  
Peifa Yu ◽  
Xumin Ou ◽  
Qiuwei Pan ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Innate Immunity ◽  
Immune System ◽  
Hepatitis E Virus ◽  
Inflammatory Responses ◽  
Hepatitis E ◽  
Experimental Models ◽  
Innate Immune ◽  
Host Immune System ◽  
Global Health Issue ◽  
Host Innate Immunity

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection represents an emerging global health issue, whereas the clinical outcomes vary dramatically among different populations. The host innate immune system provides a first-line defense against the infection, but dysregulation may partially contribute to severe pathogenesis. A growing body of evidence has indicated the active response of the host innate immunity to HEV infection both in experimental models and in patients. In turn, HEV has developed sophisticated strategies to counteract the host immune system. In this review, we aim to comprehensively decipher the processes of pathogen recognition, interferon, and inflammatory responses, and the involvement of innate immune cells in HEV infection. We further discuss their implications in understanding the pathogenic mechanisms and developing antiviral therapies.

scholarly journals Innate Immune Response against Hepatitis C Virus: Targets for Vaccine Adjuvants

Vaccines ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 8 (2) ◽  
pp. 313
Author(s):  
Daniel Sepulveda-Crespo ◽  
Salvador Resino ◽  
Isidoro Martinez
Keyword(s):  
Immune Response ◽  
Innate Immunity ◽  
Hepatitis C Virus ◽  
Hepatitis C ◽  
Innate Immune Response ◽  
Vaccine Development ◽  
Innate Immune ◽  
World Health ◽  
Cell Immune Response ◽  
Vaccine Adjuvants

Despite successful treatments, hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections continue to be a significant world health problem. High treatment costs, the high number of undiagnosed individuals, and the difficulty to access to treatment, particularly in marginalized susceptible populations, make it improbable to achieve the global control of the virus in the absence of an effective preventive vaccine. Current vaccine development is mostly focused on weakly immunogenic subunits, such as surface glycoproteins or non-structural proteins, in the case of HCV. Adjuvants are critical components of vaccine formulations that increase immunogenic performance. As we learn more information about how adjuvants work, it is becoming clear that proper stimulation of innate immunity is crucial to achieving a successful immunization. Several hepatic cell types participate in the early innate immune response and the subsequent inflammation and activation of the adaptive response, principally hepatocytes, and antigen-presenting cells (Kupffer cells, and dendritic cells). Innate pattern recognition receptors on these cells, mainly toll-like receptors, are targets for new promising adjuvants. Moreover, complex adjuvants that stimulate different components of the innate immunity are showing encouraging results and are being incorporated in current vaccines. Recent studies on HCV-vaccine adjuvants have shown that the induction of a strong T- and B-cell immune response might be enhanced by choosing the right adjuvant.

scholarly journals Virus Caused Imbalance of Type I IFN Responses and Inflammation in COVID-19

2021 ◽  
Vol 12 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jintao Zhang ◽  
Chunyuan Zhao ◽  
Wei Zhao
Keyword(s):  
Innate Immunity ◽  
Innate Immune System ◽  
Innate Immune ◽  
Type I Interferons ◽  
Type I ◽  
Type I Ifn ◽  
Antiviral Responses ◽  
Public Health Challenges ◽  
Host Innate Immunity ◽  
Efficient Elimination

The global expansion of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has emerged as one of the greatest public health challenges and imposes a great threat to human health. Innate immunity plays vital roles in eliminating viruses through initiating type I interferons (IFNs)-dependent antiviral responses and inducing inflammation. Therefore, optimal activation of innate immunity and balanced type I IFN responses and inflammation are beneficial for efficient elimination of invading viruses. However, SARS-CoV-2 manipulates the host’s innate immune system by multiple mechanisms, leading to aberrant type I IFN responses and excessive inflammation. In this review, we will emphasize the recent advances in the understanding of the crosstalk between host innate immunity and SARS-CoV-2 to explain the imbalance between inflammation and type I IFN responses caused by viral infection, and explore potential therapeutic targets for COVID-19.

scholarly journals Restoration of the Activated Rig-I Pathway in Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) Replicon Cells by HCV Protease, Polymerase, and NS5A InhibitorsIn Vitroat Clinically Relevant Concentrations

2013 ◽  
Vol 57 (9) ◽  
pp. 4417-4426 ◽  
Author(s):  
Gururaj Kalkeri ◽  
Chao Lin ◽  
Jenna Gopilan ◽  
Kevin Sloan ◽  
Rene Rijnbrand ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Innate Immunity ◽  
Hepatitis C Virus ◽  
Hepatitis C ◽  
Sendai Virus ◽  
Mitochondrial Localization ◽  
Promoter Activation ◽  
Polymerase Inhibitors ◽  
Hcv Protease ◽  
Host Innate Immunity ◽  
Ns3 Protease

ABSTRACTDevelopment of persistent hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection may be mediated by HCV NS3 · 4A protease-dependent inhibition of host innate immunity. When double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) is detected in virus-infected cells, host innate immunity mounts an antiviral response by upregulating production of type I interferons (α/β interferon [IFN-α/β]); HCV counters by cleaving the IFN-β stimulator 1 (IPS-1) adaptor protein, decreasing synthesis of IFN-α/β. We evaluated HCV protease (telaprevir, boceprevir, and TMC435350), polymerase (HCV-796 and VX-222), and NS5A (BMS-790052) inhibitors for the ability to restore IPS-1-mediated Rig-I signaling by measuring Sendai virus-induced IFN-β promoter activation in HCV replicon cells after various exposure durations. All direct-acting HCV antivirals tested restored mitochondrial localization of IPS-1 and rescued Sendai virus-induced IRF3 signaling after 7 days by inhibiting HCV replication, thereby reducing the abundance of HCV NS3 · 4A protease. With 4-day treatment, HCV protease inhibitors, but not polymerase inhibitors, restored mitochondrial localization of IPS-1 and rescued IFN-β promoter activation in the presence of equivalent levels of NS3 protein in protease or polymerase inhibitor-treated cells. The concentrations of HCV protease and polymerase inhibitors needed to rescue IRF3-mediated signalingin vitrowere in the range of those observedin vivoin the plasma of treated HCV patients. These findings suggest that (i) HCV protease, polymerase, and NS5A inhibitors can restore virus-induced IRF3 signaling by inhibiting viral replication, thereby reducing NS3 protease levels, and (ii) HCV protease inhibitors can restore innate immunity by directly inhibiting NS3 protease-mediated cleavage of IPS-1 at clinically achievable concentrations.

scholarly journals Hepatitis C Virus Evasion from RIG-I-Dependent Hepatic Innate Immunity

2010 ◽  
Vol 2010 ◽  
pp. 1-8 ◽  
Author(s):  
Helene Minyi Liu ◽  
Michael Gale
Keyword(s):  
Hepatitis C Virus ◽  
Hepatitis C ◽  
Intracellular Signaling ◽  
Innate Immune ◽  
Hcv Infection ◽  
Viral Pathogen ◽  
Infected Hepatocyte ◽  
Interferon Stimulated Genes ◽  
Hepatic Innate Immunity ◽  
Chronic Hcv

Exposure to hepatitis C virus (HCV) usually results in persistent infection that often develops into chronic liver disease. Interferon-alpha (IFN) treatment comprises the foundation of current approved therapy for chronic HCV infection but is limited in overall efficacy. IFN is a major effector of innate antiviral immunity and is naturally produced in response to viral infection when viral pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) are recognized as nonself and are bound by cellular pathogen recognition receptors (PRRs), including Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and the RIG-I-like receptors (RLRs). Within hepatocytes, RIG-I is a major PRR of HCV infection wherein PAMP interactions serve to trigger intracellular signaling cascades in the infected hepatocyte to drive IFN production and the expression of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs). ISGs function to limit virus replication, modulate the immune system, and to suppress virus spread. However, studies of HCV-host interactions have revealed several mechanisms of innate immune regulation and evasion that feature virus control of PRR signaling and regulation of hepatic innate immune programs that may provide a molecular basis for viral persistence.

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