The Physics of Heat Waves: What Causes Extremely High Summertime Temperatures?

2022 ◽  
pp. 1-61
Author(s):  
Marcia B. Baker
Keyword(s):  
Soil Moisture ◽  
Process Model ◽  
Heat Waves ◽  
Temperature Variability ◽  
Shortwave Radiation ◽  
Nonlinear Feedback ◽  
High Frequency Variability ◽  
Hot Days ◽  
The Impact ◽  
Hierarchy Of Models

Abstract We analyze observations and develop a hierarchy of models to understand heat waves – long-lived, high temperature anomalies – and extremely high daily temperatures during summertime in the continental extratropics. Throughout the extratropics, the number of extremely hot days found in the three hottest months is much greater than expected from a random, single-process model. Furthermore, in many locations the temperature skewness switches from negative on daily timescales to positive on monthly timescales (or shifts from positive on daily timescales to higher positive values on monthly timescales) in ways that cannot be explained by averaging alone. These observations motivate a hierarchy of models of the surface energy and moisture budgets that we use to illuminate the physics responsible for daily and monthly averaged temperature variability. Shortwave radiation fluctuations drive much of the variance and the negative skewness found in daily temperature observations. On longer timescales, precipitation-induced soil moisture anomalies are important for temperature variability and account for the shift toward positive skewness in monthly averaged temperature. Our results demonstrate that long-lived heat waves are due to (i) the residence time of soil moisture anomalies and (ii) a nonlinear feedback between temperature and evapotranspiration via the impact of temperature on vapor pressure deficit. For most climates, these two processes give rise to infrequent, long-lived heat waves in response to randomly distributed precipitation forcing. Combined with our results concerning high-frequency variability, extremely hot days are seen to be state-independent filigree driven by shortwave variability acting on top of longer-lived, moisture driven heat waves.

scholarly journals Towards Including Dynamic Vegetation Parameters in the EUMETSAT H SAF ASCAT Soil Moisture Products

2021 ◽  
Vol 13 (8) ◽  
pp. 1463
Author(s):  
Susan C. Steele-Dunne ◽  
Sebastian Hahn ◽  
Wolfgang Wagner ◽  
Mariette Vreugdenhil
Keyword(s):  
Soil Moisture ◽  
Interannual Variability ◽  
Incidence Angle ◽  
Pearson Correlation ◽  
The United States ◽  
Research Network ◽  
Window Width ◽  
High Frequency Variability ◽  
Vegetation Parameters ◽  
The Impact

The TU Wien Soil Moisture Retrieval (TUW SMR) approach is used to produce several operational soil moisture products from the Advanced Scatterometer (ASCAT) on the Metop series of satellites as part of the EUMETSAT Satellite Application Facility on Support to Operational Hydrology and Water Management (H SAF). The incidence angle dependence of backscatter is described by a second-order Taylor polynomial, the coefficients of which are used to normalize ASCAT observations to the reference incidence angle of 40∘ and for correcting vegetation effects. Recently, a kernel smoother was developed to estimate the coefficients dynamically, in order to account for interannual variability. In this study, we used the kernel smoother for estimating these coefficients, where we distinguished for the first time between their two uses, meaning that we used a short and fixed window width for the backscatter normalisation while we tested different window widths for optimizing the vegetation correction. In particular, we investigated the impact of using the dynamic vegetation parameters on soil moisture retrieval. We compared soil moisture retrievals based on the dynamic vegetation parameters to those estimated using the current operational approach by examining their agreement, in terms of the Pearson correlation coefficient, unbiased RMSE and bias with respect to in situ soil moisture. Data from the United States Climate Research Network were used to study the influence of climate class and land cover type on performance. The sensitivity to the kernel smoother half-width was also investigated. Results show that estimating the vegetation parameters with the kernel smoother can yield an improvement when there is interannual variability in vegetation due to a trend or a change in the amplitude or timing of the seasonal cycle. However, using the kernel smoother introduces high-frequency variability in the dynamic vegetation parameters, particularly for shorter kernel half-widths.

scholarly journals An observation-constrained multi-physics WRF ensemble for simulating European mega heat waves

2015 ◽  
Vol 8 (7) ◽  
pp. 2285-2298 ◽  
Author(s):  
A. I. Stegehuis ◽  
R. Vautard ◽  
P. Ciais ◽  
A. J. Teuling ◽  
D. G. Miralles ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Heat Wave ◽  
Land Surface ◽  
Western Europe ◽  
Climate Models ◽  
Climate Model ◽  
Heat Waves ◽  
Regional Climate ◽  
Shortwave Radiation ◽  
Cold Bias ◽  
The Impact

Abstract. Many climate models have difficulties in properly reproducing climate extremes, such as heat wave conditions. Here we use the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) regional climate model with a large combination of different atmospheric physics schemes, in combination with the NOAH land-surface scheme, with the goal of detecting the most sensitive physics and identifying those that appear most suitable for simulating the heat wave events of 2003 in western Europe and 2010 in Russia. In total, 55 out of 216 simulations combining different atmospheric physical schemes have a temperature bias smaller than 1 °C during the heat wave episodes, the majority of simulations showing a cold bias of on average 2–3 °C. Conversely, precipitation is mostly overestimated prior to heat waves, and shortwave radiation is slightly overestimated. Convection is found to be the most sensitive atmospheric physical process impacting simulated heat wave temperature across four different convection schemes in the simulation ensemble. Based on these comparisons, we design a reduced ensemble of five well performing and diverse scheme configurations, which may be used in the future to perform heat wave analysis and to investigate the impact of climate change during summer in Europe.

Parametrizating Soil Surface Fluxes in the JULES Land Surface Model

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
John Edwards
Keyword(s):  
Soil Moisture ◽  
Land Surface ◽  
Heat Waves ◽  
Numerical Models ◽  
Weather Prediction ◽  
Land Surface Model ◽  
Soil Surface ◽  
Current Status ◽  
Surface Model ◽  
The Impact

<p>The parametrization of land-atmosphere interactions in numerical weather prediction and climate models is a topic of active and growing interest, especially in connection with extreme events such as heat waves and droughts. Semiarid regions are sensitive to drought and are currently expanding, but they are often poorly represented in numerical models. On forecasting timescales, comparisons of simulated land surface temperature against retrievals from satellites often show significant cold biases around noon, whilst, on climate timescales, land surface models often fail to represent droughts realistically. Inadequate treatment of the land surface, and particularly of soil properties and soil moisture, is likely to contribute to such errors.</p> <p>Efforts to develop improved parametrizations of soil processes in the JULES land surface model for application in weather prediction and climate simulations are underway. Whilst processes at the soil surface are a central part of this, to obtain acceptable performance it is also important to consider the surface flux budget as a whole, including the treatment of the plant canopy. Here, we shall describe the current status of developments aimed at improving the representation of evapotranspiration and ground heat fluxes in the model, noting the major issues encountered. The importance of accurately representing the impact of soil moisture on thermal properties will be stressed. Results from initial studies will be presented and we shall offer a perspective on future developments.<br /><br /></p>

scholarly journals How Important is Vegetation Phenology for European Climate and Heat Waves?

2013 ◽  
Vol 26 (24) ◽  
pp. 10077-10100 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ruth Lorenz ◽  
Edouard L. Davin ◽  
David M. Lawrence ◽  
Reto Stöckli ◽  
Sonia I. Seneviratne
Keyword(s):  
Soil Moisture ◽  
Heat Wave ◽  
Climate Model ◽  
Heat Waves ◽  
Daily Maximum ◽  
Vegetation Phenology ◽  
Area Index ◽  
Summer Climate ◽  
European Climate ◽  
The Impact

Abstract It has been hypothesized that vegetation phenology may play an important role for the midlatitude climate. This study investigates the impact of interannual and intraseasonal variations in phenology on European climate using regional climate model simulations. In addition, it assesses the relative importance of interannual variations in vegetation phenology and soil moisture on European summer climate. It is found that drastic phenological changes have a smaller effect on mean summer and spring climate than extreme changes in soil moisture (roughly ¼ of the temperature anomaly induced by soil moisture changes). However, the impact of phenological anomalies during heat waves is found to be more important. Generally, late and weak greening has amplifying effects and early and strong greening has dampening effects on heat waves; however, regional variations are found. The experiments suggest that in the extreme hot 2003 (western and central Europe) and 2007 (southeastern Europe) summers the decrease in leaf area index amplified the heat wave peaks by about 0.5°C for daily maximum temperatures (about half of the effect induced by soil moisture deficit). In contrast to earlier hypotheses, no anomalous early greening in spring 2003 is seen in the phenological dataset employed here. Hence, the results indicate that vegetation feedbacks amplified the 2003 heat wave but were not responsible for its initiation. In conclusion, the results suggest that phenology has a limited effect on European mean summer climate, but its impact can be as important as that induced by soil moisture anomalies in the context of specific extreme events.

Land-atmosphere coupling during compound extreme heat and drought events in the LUCAS experiment: a new coupling metric for climate extremes

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Rita M. Cardoso ◽  
Daniela D. C. A. Lima ◽  
Pedro M. M. Soares ◽  
Diana Rechid ◽  
Marcus Breil ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Land Use ◽  
Heat Flux ◽  
Soil Moisture ◽  
Land Cover ◽  
Latent Heat ◽  
Latent Heat Flux ◽  
Heat Waves ◽  
Extreme Heat ◽  
Positive Temperature ◽  
The Impact

<p>Land-atmosphere energy and water exchanges are fundamentally linked to soil-moisture. The distribution of the planets’ biomes hinges on the surface-atmosphere coupling since soil moisture and temperature feedbacks have a strong influence on plant transpiration and photosynthesis. Land use/land cover changes (LUC) modify locally land surface properties that control the land-atmosphere mass, energy, and momentum exchanges. The impact of these changes depends on the scale and nature of land cover modifications and is very difficult to quantify. However, large inconsistencies in the LUC impacts are observed between models, highlighting the need for common LUC across a large ensemble of models. The Flagship Pilot Study LUCAS (Land Use & Climate Across Scales) provides a coordinated effort to study LUC using an ensemble of regional climate models (RCMs). In the first phase of the project 3 experiments were performed for continental Europe: EVAL (current climate); GRASS (trees replaced by grassland) and FOREST (grasses and shrubs replaced by trees).  An analysis of the energy and moisture balance for the three experiments is performed, focusing on the relationship between the fluxes partitioning, heat waves and droughts. To better asses the link between extreme temperatures and soil moisture or evapotranspiration, a new coupling metric for short time scales is proposed, the Latent Heat Flux-Temperature Coupling Magnitude (LETCM). This new metric is computed for a specific period, considering the positive temperature extremes and the negative latent heat flux extremes. Areas with positive magnitude values imply higher temperature anomaly, due to a negative latent heat flux anomaly. This new metric only considers periods of strong coupling, with positive signals in areas of high temperatures and evaporative stress, allowing for the detection of events that are extreme for energy and water cycle. Concurrently, a new decile based normalised drought index is used to examine the concurrent heat extremes and droughts. The analysis focuses on the three experiments revealing that the number, amplitude and spatial distribution of compound extreme heat and drought is highly model dependant. The impact of afforestation or deforestation is not consistent across models.</p><p><strong>Acknowledgements</strong></p><p> The authors wish to acknowledge project LEADING (PTDC/CTA-MET/28914/2017) and FCT - project UIDB/50019/2020 - Instituto Dom Luiz.</p>

scholarly journals Enhancing Model Skill by Assimilating SMOPS Blended Soil Moisture Product into Noah Land Surface Model

2015 ◽  
Vol 16 (2) ◽  
pp. 917-931 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jifu Yin ◽  
Xiwu Zhan ◽  
Youfei Zheng ◽  
Jicheng Liu ◽  
Li Fang ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Soil Moisture ◽  
Land Surface ◽  
Surface Radiation ◽  
Radiation Budget ◽  
Shortwave Radiation ◽  
Surface Model ◽  
Spatial Coverage ◽  
In Situ Observations ◽  
The Impact

Abstract Many studies that have assimilated remotely sensed soil moisture into land surface models have generally focused on retrievals from a single satellite sensor. However, few studies have evaluated the merits of assimilating ensemble products that are merged soil moisture retrievals from several different sensors. In this study, the assimilation of the Soil Moisture Operational Products System (SMOPS) blended soil moisture (SBSM) product, which is a combination of soil moisture products from WindSat, Advanced Scatterometer (ASCAT), and Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) satellite sensors is examined. Using the ensemble Kalman filter (EnKF), a synthetic experiment is performed on the global domain at 25-km resolution to assess the impact of assimilating the SBSM product. The benefit of assimilating SBSM is assessed by comparing it with in situ observations from U.S. Department of Agriculture Soil Climate Analysis Network (SCAN) and the Surface Radiation Budget Network (SURFRAD). Time-averaged surface-layer soil moisture fields from SBSM have a higher spatial coverage and generally agree with model simulations in the global patterns of wet and dry regions. The impacts of assimilating SMOPS blended data on model soil moisture and soil temperature are evident in both sparsely and densely vegetated areas. Temporal correlations between in situ observations and net shortwave radiation and net longwave radiation are higher with assimilating SMOPS blended product than without the data assimilation.

scholarly journals The Impact of Variable Horizon Shade on the Growing Season Energy Budget of a Subalpine Headwater Wetland

Atmosphere ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 12 (11) ◽  
pp. 1473
Author(s):  
Dylan M. Hrach ◽  
Richard M. Petrone ◽  
Brandon Van Huizen ◽  
Adam Green ◽  
Myroslava Khomik
Keyword(s):  
Soil Moisture ◽  
Surface Energy ◽  
Energy Budget ◽  
Growing Season ◽  
Shortwave Radiation ◽  
Energy Budgets ◽  
Water Storage Capacity ◽  
Headwater Wetland ◽  
Downstream Flow ◽  
The Impact

Surface energy budgets are important to the ecohydrology of complex terrain, where land surfaces cycle in and out of shadows creating distinct microclimates. Shading in such environments can help regulate downstream flow over the course of a growing season, but our knowledge on how shadows impact the energy budget and consequently ecohydrology in montane ecosystems is very limited. We investigated the influence of horizon shade on the surface energy fluxes of a subalpine headwater wetland in the Canadian Rocky Mountains during the growing season. During the study, surface insolation decreased by 60% (32% due to evolving horizon shade and 28% from seasonality). The influence of shade on the energy budget varied between two distinct periods: (1) Stable Shade, when horizon shade was constant and reduced sunlight by 2 h per day; and (2) Dynamic Shade, when shade increased and reduced sunlight by 0.18 h more each day, equivalent to a 13% reduction in incoming shortwave radiation and 16% in net radiation. Latent heat flux, the dominant energy flux at our site, varied temporally because of changes in incoming radiation, atmospheric demand, soil moisture and shade. Horizon shade controlled soil moisture at our site by prolonging snowmelt and reducing evapotranspiration in the late growing season, resulting in increased water storage capacity compared to other mountain wetlands. With the mounting risk of climate-change-driven severe spring flooding and late season droughts downstream of mountain headwaters, shaded subalpine wetlands provide important ecohydrological and mitigation services that are worthy of further study and mapping. This will help us better understand and protect mountain and prairie water resources.

scholarly journals A Lagrangian Analysis of the Dynamical and Thermodynamic Drivers of Greenland Melt Events during 1979–2017

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mauro Hermann ◽  
Lukas Papritz ◽  
Heini Wernli
Keyword(s):  
Heat Waves ◽  
Lower Troposphere ◽  
Greenland Ice Sheet ◽  
Shortwave Radiation ◽  
Critical Threshold ◽  
Region Of Origin ◽  
Air Masses ◽  
Warm Anomaly ◽  
Downward Longwave Radiation ◽  
The Impact

Abstract. In this study, we systematically investigate the dynamical and thermodynamic processes that lead to 77 Greenland melt events affecting high-elevated regions of the Greenland Ice Sheet (GrIS) in June–August (JJA) 1979–2017. For that purpose, we compute 8-day kinematic backward trajectories from the lowermost ~ 500 m above the GrIS during these events. The key synoptic feature accompanying the melt events is an upper-tropospheric ridge southeast of the GrIS associated with a surface high pressure system. This circulation pattern is favourable to induce rapid poleward transport (up to 40° latitude) of warm (~ 15 K warmer than climatological air masses arriving on the GrIS) and moist air masses from the lower troposphere to the western GrIS and subsequently to distribute them in the anticyclonic flow over North and East Greenland. During transport to the GrIS, the melt event air masses cool by ~ 15 K due to ascent and radiation, which keeps them just above the critical threshold to induce melting. The thermodynamic analyses reveal that the final warm anomaly of the air masses is primarily owed to anomalous horizontal transport from a climatologically warm region of origin. However, before being transported to the GrIS, i.e., in their region of origin, these air masses were not anomalously warm. Latent heating from condensation of water vapour, occurring as the airstreams are forced to ascend orographically or dynamically, is of secondary importance. These characteristics were particularly pronounced during the most extensive melt event in early July 2012, where, importantly, the warm anomaly was not preserved from anomalously warm source regions such as North America experiencing a record heat wave. The mechanisms identified here are in contrast to melt events in the low-elevation high Arctic and to midlatitude heat waves, where adiabatic warming by large-scale subsidence is essential. Considering the impact of moisture on the surface energy balance, we find that radiative effects are closely linked to the air mass trajectories and enhance melt over the entire GrIS due to (i) enhanced downward longwave radiation related to poleward moisture transport and a shift in the cloud phase from ice to liquid primarily west of the ice divide, and (ii) increased shortwave radiation in clear-sky regions east of the ice divide. Given the identified mechanisms that cause extensive melt over the GrIS, the understanding of upper-tropospheric ridges over the North Atlantic, i.e., also Greenland blocking, and its representation in climate models is crucial in determining future GrIS melt and so global sea-level rise.

scholarly journals Hot days and Covid-19 – unusual heat stress for nursing professions in Germany

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Yvette Jegodka ◽  
Lena Lagally ◽  
Hanna Mertes ◽  
Katharina Deering ◽  
Julia Schoierer ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Heat Stress ◽  
Nursing Staff ◽  
Personal Protective Equipment ◽  
Heat Waves ◽  
Protective Equipment ◽  
List Type ◽  
Heat Protection ◽  
New Findings ◽  
Hot Days ◽  
The Impact

AbstractObjectivesOur aim was to identify whether working during hot days alongside with Covid-19 related personal protective equipment causes heat stress for nursing professionals in Germany.MethodsUsing an online survey, we assessed the impact of hot weather on nursing staff performing in personal protective equipment. A random selection of nursing staff from hospitals, nursing homes and outpatient care participated in the survey.ResultsOut of 428 participants, 6.3% were between 16 and 25 years old, 22.8% between 26 and 35 years, 21.9% between 36 and 45 years, 30.5% between 45 and 55 years, 18.2% between 56 and 65 years, and 0.3% were older than 65 years. Out of all participants, 18.2% were male and 82.5% female. The results of the survey showed that 48.3% had more than 20 years of experience in nursing and 46.2% cardiac, pulmonary, or other pre-existing conditions. Work was found exhaustive while working in PPE by 96.5% of the participants, and 93% complained of worse breathing. We found out that 85.8% reported difficulties to focus. Many workplaces turned out to lack adequate heat protection, with distinct differences concerning the amount of prophylactic and heat mitigating measures across institutions.ConclusionsOur results clearly show that employers must make more of an effort to provide adequate heat protection for their nursing staff. In order to secure the public health care, there is a need for action, especially in the case of previous conditions of caregivers.What is already known about this subject?►Working in personal protective equipment is often needed during pandemics, to protect nurses, doctors and staff from an infection.►However, the equipment can also hamper efficiency and productivity of healthcare workers and lead to personal discomfort, for example, during heat waves.What are the new findings?►According to our study, nurses and nursing assistants in Germany are often older than 45 years and, in many cases, suffer from pre-existing conditions, which exacerbate the problems with personal protective equipment during periods of hot temperatures.►Many healthcare institutions do not offer adequate ways to mitigate heat stress for their staff.How might this impact on policy or clinical practice in the foreseeable future?►The results from this study can inform policy makers and clinical practitioners to modify their protocols to include better protective measures during extreme heat or other adverse environmental conditions.

scholarly journals Spatial distribution of hot days in north central region, Vietnam in the period of 1980-2013

2019 ◽  
Vol 41 (1) ◽  
pp. 36-45 ◽  
Author(s):  
Pham Thi Ly ◽  
Hoang Luu Thu Thuy
Keyword(s):  
Climate Change ◽  
Heat Waves ◽  
Global Climate ◽  
Science And Technology ◽  
Extreme Temperature ◽  
Intergovernmental Panel ◽  
The North ◽  
Hot Days ◽  
Synthesis Report ◽  
The Impact

Based on the data of daily maximum temperature in 26 meteorological stations in the North Center Region, Vietnam over the period of 1980 to 2013, the authors conducted the research on the spatial distribution of the number of hot days. The initial result shows that in general, in the north of the study area, the large number of hot days occurred in the plain, and tended to decrease westward and eastward. In the south, this number tends to increase from the west to the east. Especially, the largest number occurred in two areas: The Ma and Ca River's valleys (Thanh Hoa and Nghe An provinces) and the coastal areas (Thua Thien Hue province), creating two heat centers in Tuong Duong district, Nghe An province and Nam Dong district, Thua Thien Hue province.ReferencesAdina-Eliza Croitoru, Adrian Piticar, Antoniu-Flavius Ciupertea, Cristina FlorinaRosca, 2016 Changes in heat wave indices in Romania over the period 1961-2015. Global and Plantary Change 146. Journal homepage: www. Elsevier.com/locate/gloplacha.Chu Thi Thu Huong et al., 2010. Variations and trends in hot event in Vietnam from 1961-2007, VNU Journal of Science and Technology, 26(3S).Climate Council, 2014a. Angry Summer 2013/2014. Accessed at http://www.climatecouncil.org.au/ angry-summer.Climate Council, 2014b. Angry Summer 2013/2014. Accessed at http://www.climatecouncil.org.au/ angry-summer.CSIRO and BoM, 2012. State of the Climate 2012.CSIRO and Bureau of Meteorology, Melbourne.Accessed at http://www.csiro.au/Outcomes/ Climate/Understanding/State-of-the-Climate-2012.aspx.D'Ippoliti D., Michelozzi P., Marino C., De'Donato F., Menne B., Katsouyanni K., Kirchmayer U., Analitis A., Medina-Ramon M., Paldy A., Atkinson R., Kovats S., Bisanti L., Schneider A., Lefranc A., Iñiguez C., Perucci C., 2010. The impact of heat waves on mortality in 9 European cities: results from the EuroHEAT project. Environ. Health 9, 37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1476-069X-9-37.Gerald A. Meehl, 1992. Effect of tropical topography on global climate, Ann. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 20, 85-112.Hayhoe K., Cayan D., Field C.B., Frumhoff P.C., Maurer E.P., Miller N.L., Moser S.C., Schneider S.H., Cahill K.N., Cleland E.E., Dale L., Drapek R., Hanemann R.M., lkstein L.S., Lenihan J., Lunch C.K., Neilson R.P., Sheridan S.C., Verville J.H., 2004. Emissions pathways, climate change, and impacts on California. PNAS, 101(34), 12422-12427.Ho Thi Minh Ha, Phan Van Tan, 2009. Trends and variations of extreme temperature in Vietnam in the period from 1961 to 2007, VNU Journal of Science and Technology, 25(3S).IPCC, 2007: Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, Pachauri R.K and Reisinger A. (eds.)]. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 104p.IPCC, 2014. Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups   I, II and III  to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental  Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, R.K. Pachauri and L.A. Meyer  (eds.)].  IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 151p.Liu G., Zhang L., He B., Jin X., Zhang Q., Razafindrabe B., You H., 2015. Temporal changes in extreme high temperature, heat waves and relevant disasters in Nanjing metropolitan region, China. Nat.  Hazards, 76,  1415–1430. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11069-014-1556-y.Manton M.J et al., 2001. Trends in extreme daily temperature in Southeast Asia Rainfall ad and the South Pacific, J. Climatol. 21.Nairn J.R., Fawcett R.J.B., 2015. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 12, 227–253. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120100227.Nguyen Duc Ngu, 2009. Climate Change Challenges to development, Journal of Economy and Environment, No. 1.Perkins S.E., Alexander  L.V., 2013.  On the measurement of heat waves.  J. Clim.  26, 4500–4517. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00383.1.Peterson T.C., Heim Jr. R.R., Hirsch R., Kaiser D.P., Brooks H., Diffenbaugh N.S., Dole R.M., Giovannettone J.P., Guirguis K., Karl T.R., Katz  R.W., Kunkel K., Lettenmaier D., McCabe G.J., Paciorek C.J., Ryberg K.R., Schubert S., Silva  V.B.S., Stewart B.C., Vecchia A.V., Villarini G., Vose  R.S., Walsh J., Wehner M., Wolock D., Wolter K., Woodhouse C.A., Wuebbles D., 2013. Monitoring and understanding changes in heat waves, cold waves, floods, and droughts in the United States: state of knowledge. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 94, 821–834.Pham Thi Ly, Hoang Luu Thu Thuy, 2015. Variation of heat waves in the North Central Region over the period of 1980-2013, Journal of natural resources and environment, 9, 81-89.Phan Van Tan et al., 2010. Study impact of global climate change on extreme weather phenomena and factors in Vietnam, prediction and adaptation strategies. Project final report, KC 08.29/06-10, Hanoi University of Science.Spinoni J., Lakatos M., Szentimrey T., Bihari Z., Szalai S., Vogt  J., Antofie T., 2015. Heat and cold waves trends in Carpathian Region from 1961 to 2010. Int.  J. Climatol, 35, 4197–4209. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/joc.4279.Toreti A., Desiato F., 2008.Temperature trends over Italy from 1961 to 2004, Theor. Appl. Climatol 91.Tran Cong Minh, 2007. Principle of meteorology and climate, Book, Public House of Hanoi National University.Tran Quang Duc, Trinh Lan Phuong, 2013. Changes of Hot day and Fohn Activities at Ha Tinh- Central Vietnam, VNU Journal of Science, Science and Technology, 29(2S).Trewin B., Smalley R., 2013.Changes in extreme temperature in Australia, 1910 to 2011. In: 19th AMOS National Conference, Melbourne, 11-13.Unal  Y.S., Tan  E., Mentes S.S., 2013. Summer heat waves over western Turkey between 1965 and 2006.Theor. Appl. Climatol, 112, 339–350.  http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00704-012-0704-0.Will Steffen, 2015. Quantifying the impact of climate change on extreme heat in Australia. Published by the Climate Council of Australia Limited. ISBN: 978-0-9942453-1-1 (print) 978-0-9942453-0-4 (web).

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