scholarly journals Dangers of residual confounding: a cautionary tale featuring cognitive ability, socioeconomic background, and education

2021 ◽  
Vol 9 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Kimmo Sorjonen ◽  
Daniel Falkstedt ◽  
Alma Sörberg Wallin ◽  
Bo Melin ◽  
Gustav Nilsonne
Keyword(s):  
Cognitive Ability ◽  
Positive Association ◽  
Longitudinal Survey ◽  
Socioeconomic Background ◽  
Educational Outcome ◽  
Cautionary Tale ◽  
Level Of Education ◽  
Discrimination Hypothesis ◽  
Residual Confounding ◽  
Potential Use

Abstract Background Cognitive ability and socioeconomic background (SEB) have been previously identified as determinants of achieved level of education. According to a “discrimination hypothesis”, higher cognitive ability is required from those with lower SEB in order to achieve the same level of education as those with higher SEB. Support for this hypothesis has been claimed from the observation of a positive association between SEB and achieved level of education when adjusting for cognitive ability. We propose a competing hypothesis that the observed association is due to residual confounding. Methods To adjudicate between the discrimination and the residual confounding hypotheses, data from the 1997 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY97, N = 8984) was utilized, including a check of the logic where we switched predictor and outcome variables. Results The expected positive association between SEB and achieved level of education when adjusting for cognitive ability (predicted by both hypotheses) was found, but a positive association between cognitive ability and SEB when adjusting for level of education (predicted only by the residual confounding hypothesis) was also observed. Conclusions These results highlight the potential use of reversing predictors and outcomes to test the logic of hypothesis testing, and support a residual confounding hypothesis over a discrimination hypothesis in explaining associations between SEB, cognitive ability, and educational outcome.

scholarly journals Dangers of residual confounding: A cautionary tale featuring cognitive ability, socioeconomic background, and education

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Kimmo Sorjonen ◽  
Daniel Falkstedt ◽  
Alma Sörberg Wallin ◽  
Bo Melin ◽  
Gustav Nilsonne
Keyword(s):  
Cognitive Ability ◽  
Positive Association ◽  
Longitudinal Survey ◽  
Socioeconomic Background ◽  
Educational Outcome ◽  
Cautionary Tale ◽  
Level Of Education ◽  
Discrimination Hypothesis ◽  
Residual Confounding ◽  
Potential Use

Cognitive ability and socioeconomic background (SEB) have been previously identified as determinants of achieved level of education. According to a “discrimination hypothesis”, higher cognitive ability is required from those with lower SEB in order to achieve the same level of education as those with higher SEB. Support for this hypothesis has been claimed from the observation of a positive association between SEB and achieved level of education when adjusting for cognitive ability. Here we propose a competing hypothesis that the observed association is due to residual confounding. To adjudicate between these hypotheses, we tested both on data from the 1997 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY97, N = 8984), including a check of the logic where we switched places between predictor and outcome. We found the expected positive association between SEB and achieved level of education when adjusting for cognitive ability (predicted by both hypotheses), but we also observed a positive association between cognitive ability and SEB when adjusting for level of education (predicted only by the residual confounding hypothesis). Under the logic of the discrimination hypothesis, a contradictory interpretation emerges: higher cognitive ability is required from those with higher SEB in order to achieve the same level of education as those with lower SEB. These results highlight the potential use of reversing predictors and outcomes to test the logic of hypothesis testing, and support a residual confounding hypothesis over a discrimination hypothesis in explaining associations between SEB, cognitive ability, and educational outcome.

scholarly journals Spurious correlations in research on the effects of specific cognitive abilities

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Kimmo Sorjonen ◽  
Bo Melin
Keyword(s):  
Cognitive Ability ◽  
Cognitive Abilities ◽  
Test Scores ◽  
Verbal Ability ◽  
Positive Association ◽  
Longitudinal Survey ◽  
The Other ◽  
General Cognitive Ability ◽  
Math Ability ◽  
Specific Cognitive Abilities

Studies on the effect of non-g ability residuals have often employed double adjustment for general cognitive ability (g), as they have calculated the ability residuals adjusting for g and then calculated the effect of the non-g residuals while adjusting for g. The present simulations demonstrate that the double adjustments may result in spurious negative associations between the non-g residual on one cognitive ability, e.g. verbal ability, and variables with a positive association with another ability, e.g. SAT math and math ability. In analyses of the 1997 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY97), the negative associations between non-g residuals on verbal and math ability and aptitude test scores on the other ability vanished when not double adjusting for g. This indicates that the observed negative associations may be spurious and not due to differential investment of time and effort in one ability at the expense of the other ability, as suggested in the literature. Researchers of the effects of specific abilities are recommended to validate their findings and interpretations with analyses not double adjusting for g.

scholarly journals Personality trait by intelligence interaction effects on grades tend to be synergistic

2021 ◽  
Vol 9 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Kimmo Sorjonen ◽  
Alma Sörberg Wallin ◽  
Daniel Falkstedt ◽  
Bo Melin
Keyword(s):  
High School ◽  
Academic Performance ◽  
Personality Traits ◽  
Personality Trait ◽  
Interaction Effect ◽  
Positive Association ◽  
Interaction Effects ◽  
Longitudinal Survey ◽  
Substantial Portion ◽  
High School Grades

Abstract Background Earlier research has identified both synergistic and compensatory personality traits by intelligence interaction effects on academic performance. Methods The present study employed data on intelligence, personality traits, and academic performance in the 1997 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY97, N = 8984). Results Some intelligence by personality trait interaction effects, mainly involving indicators of dependability, on high school grades were identified. The interaction effects tended to be synergistic, meaning that the association between the trait and grades tended to strengthen with increased intelligence. A positive association between intelligence and the reliability in the measurement of a dependability composite score accounted for a substantial portion of the synergistic dependability by intelligence interaction effect on academic performance. Conclusions Personality trait by intelligence interaction effects on academic performance tend to be synergistic and may, at least to some degree, be due to a positive association between intelligence and reliability in the measurement of personality traits.

scholarly journals Brain structural differences between 73- and 92-year olds matched for childhood intelligence, social background, and intracranial volume

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Stuart J. Ritchie ◽  
David Alexander Dickie ◽  
Simon R. Cox ◽  
Maria del C. Valdés Hernández ◽  
Alison Pattie ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
White Matter ◽  
Cognitive Ability ◽  
Surface Area ◽  
Cortical Thickness ◽  
White Matter Hyperintensity ◽  
Socioeconomic Background ◽  
Intracranial Volume ◽  
Cortical Surface ◽  
Age Cohorts ◽  
Cortical Surface Area

AbstractFully characterizing age differences in the brain is a key task for combatting ageing-related cognitive decline. Using propensity score matching on two independent, narrow-age cohorts, we used data on childhood cognitive ability, socioeconomic background, and intracranial volume to match participants at mean age 92 years (n = 42) to very similar participants at mean age 73 (n = 126). Examining a variety of global and regional structural neuroimaging variables, there were large differences in grey and white matter volumes, cortical surface area, cortical thickness, and white matter hyperintensity volume and spatial extent. In a mediation analysis, the total volume of white matter hyperintensities and total cortical surface area jointly mediated 24.9% of the relation between age and general cognitive ability (tissue volumes and cortical thickness were not significant mediators in this analysis). These findings provide an unusual and valuable perspective on neurostructural ageing, in which brains from the eighth and tenth decades of life differ widely despite the same cognitive, socio-economic, and brain-volumetric starting points.

scholarly journals Rates of Returns to Education and the Determinants of Earnings in Pakistan

1985 ◽  
Vol 24 (3-4) ◽  
pp. 671-683 ◽  
Author(s):  
Shahrukh Rafi Khan ◽  
Mohammad Irfan
Keyword(s):  
Developing Countries ◽  
Human Capital ◽  
Returns To Education ◽  
Positive Association ◽  
Human Capital Formation ◽  
Level Of Education ◽  
The Past ◽  
Earnings Functions ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Different Levels

This paper is a straightforward exercise in estimating earnings functions and computing the private rates of returns to different levels of education. The latter summarizes the incentives to the individual to invest in human capital formation, while the former helps in ascertaining the influence of both human and non human capital variables on the earnings of the individual. A few studies conducted in the past found the rates of returns to education in Pakistan not in conformity with those of the majority of the developing countries for which such estimates exist. The estimated rates were lower for all levels of education in Pakistan than in the developing world. Moreover, the computed rates of returns had a positive association with the level of education.

scholarly journals Can You Ever Be Too Smart for Your Own Good? Comparing Linear and Nonlinear Effects of Cognitive Ability on Life Outcomes

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Matt Brown ◽  
Jonathan Wai ◽  
Christopher Chabris
Keyword(s):  
Cognitive Ability ◽  
Linear Trend ◽  
Positive Association ◽  
Nonlinear Effects ◽  
Popular Literature ◽  
Evidence Based ◽  
Life Outcomes ◽  
Null Effect ◽  
Using Data ◽  
Representative Cohort

Despite a longstanding expert consensus about the importance of cognitive ability for life outcomes, contrary views continue to proliferate in scholarly and popular literature. This divergence of beliefs presents an obstacle for evidence-based policy and decision-making in a variety of settings. One commonly held idea is that greater cognitive ability does not matter or is actually harmful beyond a certain point (sometimes stated as greater than 100 or 120 IQ points). We empirically test these notions using data from four longitudinal, representative cohort studies comprising a total of 48,558 participants in the U.S. and U.K. from 1957 to the present. We find that ability measured in youth has a positive association with most occupational, educational, health, and social outcomes later in life. Most effects were characterized by a moderate-to-strong linear trend or a practically null effect (mean R^2 = .002 to .256). Nearly all nonlinear effects were practically insignificant in magnitude (mean incremental R^2 = .001) or did not replicate across cohorts or survey waves. We found no support for any downside to higher ability and no evidence for a threshold beyond which greater scores cease to be beneficial. Thus, greater cognitive ability is generally advantageous—and virtually never detrimental.

Nutritional Status and Cognitive Abilities of Adults (20-60 years) from the City of Mumbai

2019 ◽  
Vol 56 (2) ◽  
pp. 167
Author(s):  
Neha Vaidya ◽  
Subhadra Mandalika
Keyword(s):  
Body Composition ◽  
Cognitive Impairment ◽  
Nutritional Status ◽  
Cognitive Ability ◽  
Nutrient Intake ◽  
Positive Association ◽  
Adult Males ◽  
Anthropometric Parameters ◽  
Dietary Nutrient ◽  
The City

Early identification of cognitive failure and its association with nutritional status might aid in the planning of appropriate prevention strategies. The present study was planned to find out the association between the age, gender, body composition and dietary nutrient consumption of adult males and females residing in the city of Mumbai, with their cognitive ability. Four hundred apparently healthy adults (20-60 years) residing in the city of Mumbai were purposively selected for the survey. Cognitive ability of participants was assessed using Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE) tool. Anthropometric and body composition parameters were analysed using standard procedures. Information on the dietary nutrient intake was collected using 3 day dietary recall method. Data was statistically analysed using the IBM SPSS (Version 22) software and Microsoft excel 2007 for windows. MCI was found in 21.5% of the participants. High prevalence of general and abdominal obesity was also observed in the participants. Data on the dietary nutrient intake showed that young adults (20-40 years) with high dietary fat especially SFA and MUFA consumption were found to be at a lower risk of developing MCI. Their anthropometric parameters i.e. Body Mass Index positively correlated with cognitive scores (p<0.05) whereas in older adults (40-60 years), body fat showed negative association (p<0.05) where as height, muscle mass and bone mass showed positive association with their cognitive scores (p<0.01). Thus, results of the study suggested that early detection of cognitive impairment would facilitate prevention of further neurodegeneration. Hence, identifying and preventing risk factors of cognitive impairment such as obesity and encouraging consumption of neuroprotective foods would help in the prevention of cognitive impairment.

scholarly journals Maternal Hb during pregnancy and offspring's educational achievement: a prospective cohort study over 30 years

2010 ◽  
Vol 104 (9) ◽  
pp. 1363-1368 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mohammad Fararouei ◽  
Claire Robertson ◽  
John Whittaker ◽  
Ulla Sovio ◽  
Aimo Ruokonen ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Cohort Study ◽  
Educational Achievement ◽  
Clinical Importance ◽  
Positive Association ◽  
Later Life ◽  
Birth Cohort Study ◽  
Level Of Education ◽  
Birth Month ◽  
Wide Range ◽  
Late Stages

The aim of the present study was to examine the association between maternal Hb levels during pregnancy and educational achievement of the offspring in later life. We analysed data obtained from the Northern Finnish Birth Cohort Study conducted in 1966, in which, data on mothers and offspring from pregnancy through to the age of 31 years were collected. The cohort comprised 11 656 individuals born from singleton births (51 % males and 49 % females). Maternal Hb levels were available from the third, seventh and ninth gestational months. Educational achievement was measured as school scores (range 4–10) taken at the ages of 14 (self-reported questionnaires) and 16 (school reports) years as well as the highest level of education at the age of 31 years. The present results showed a direct positive association between Hb levels and educational achievement in later life. After adjustment for sex, birth weight, birth month and a wide range of maternal factors (parity, smoking, mental status, whether pregnancy was wanted or not, education, social class and marital status), only maternal Hb levels that were measured at the ninth month were significantly associated with the offspring's school performance. If the levels were ≥ 110 g/l at all the three measurement points, offspring not only had better school scores at the ages of 14 and 16 years (β = 0·048, P = 0·04 and β = 0·68, P = 0·007, respectively), but also had an increased odds of having a higher level of education at the age of 31 years (OR = 1·14, P = 0·04). The present study suggests that low maternal Hb levels at the final stages of pregnancy are linked to the poorer educational achievement of the offspring. If our observation is confirmed, it would suggest that Fe prophylaxis even at fairly late stages of pregnancy may be beneficial for the subsequent health of the offspring. However, more studies are needed to fully establish the potential pathways and the clinical importance of the present findings.

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