scholarly journals Strategi Pemanfaatan Sumberdaya Lahan untuk Pencapaian Swasembada Beras Berkelanjutan

2020 ◽  
Vol 11 (1) ◽  
pp. 11
Author(s):  
Anny Mulyani ◽  
Dedi Nursyamsi ◽  
Muhammad Syakir
Keyword(s):  
Paddy Field ◽  
Local Governments ◽  
Agricultural Land ◽  
Upland Rice ◽  
Global Climate ◽  
Essential Element ◽  
Rice Fields ◽  
Food Crops ◽  
Land Conversion ◽  
Self Sufficiency

<p><strong>Abstrak.</strong> Lahan pertanian eksisting penghasil bahan pangan terutama sawah dan lahan kering menjadi tumpuan harapan untuk memenuhi kebutuhan pangan 258,7 juta jiwa penduduk pada tahun 2017. Usaha pencapaian swasembada berkelanjutan dihadapkan pada (i) peningkatan jumlah penduduk sekitar 3,4 juta jiwa setiap tahun, (ii) konversi lahan sawah ke non pertanian dengan laju sekitar 96.500 ha tahun-1, sementara laju perluasan lahan sawah hanya sekitar 20.000-30.000 ha tahun-1, dan (iii) perubahan iklim global yang menyebabkan peningkatan intensitas dan frekuensi kejadian iklim ekstrim berupa kekeringan, kebanjiran, longsor, yang selanjutnya meningkatkan intensitas serangan hama/penyakit tanaman. Upaya dan strategi untuk mengatasi permasalahan tersebut diantaranya melalui, pertama, intensifikasi dengan inovasi teknologi pada 4 juta ha sawah irigasi teknis, 4,1 juta ha lahan sawah sub-optimal (tadah hujan, irigasi sederhana, sawah rawa) melalui perbaikan saluran irigasi dan sistem drainase, pemupukan berimbang, pengembangan varietas unggul, dan peningkatan Indeks Panen dari 1 menjadi 1,5. Kedua, pengendalian konversi lahan melalui kesepakatan berbagai pemangku kepentingan, kerjasama lintas kementerian/ lembaga serta antara pemerintah dengan swasta dan masyarakat untuk meningkatkan kesadaran akan bahaya konversi lahan terhadap ketahanan pangan, kestabilan sosial, ekonomi dan politik. Ketiga,perluasan areal tanam di lahan perkebunan kelapa sawit muda (5,1 juta ha) dan karet (0,54 juta ha), serta pada perkebunan kelapa (2,15 juta ha). Tersedia varietas toleran naungan untuk padi gogo, jagung dan kedelai untuk mendukung usaha ini. Keempat, perluasan areal pertanian baru untuk tanaman pangan pada lahan potensial di lahan rawa (pasang surut, lebak, dan gambut) dan pada lahan basah non rawa untuk sawah irigasi dan tadah hujan, serta di lahan kering dengan lereng &lt; 15% untuk tegalan. Keempat pendekatan ini diharapkan dapat mewujudkan swasembada pangan secara berkelanjutan.</p><p><em><strong>Abstract.</strong> Existing agricultural land for food crops, especially paddy fields and upland, is a very essential element for fulfilling the needs of food for258.7 million people in 2017. The efforts to achieve permanent self-sufficiency are challenged by (i) an increase in the population of approximately 3.4 million people each year, (ii) conversion of paddy field to non-agricultural land at a rate of about 96,500 ha year-1, while the rate of paddy field expansion is only about 20,000-30,000 ha year-1, and (iii) global climate change which causes the increase in intensity and frequency of extreme climatic events in the forms of droughts, floods, landslides, that in turns increase the incident of pest/disease attacks. Efforts and strategies are required to overcome them through first, intensification by applying technological innovations on 4 million ha of existing fully irrigated rice fields, 4.1 million ha of sub-optimal rice fields (rainfed, simple irrigation, swampland) with improved irrigation and drainage systems, balanced fertilization, improved varieties, and increased Harvesting Index from 1 to 1.5. Second, control of land conversion by establishing multi-stakeholder agreements, cooperation among related ministerials/institutionals, local governments, private sectors and communities to raise awareness of the risk of land conversion to food security, social, economic and political stability.Third, expansion of rice farming areas into young oil palm (5.1 million ha), rubber (0.54 million ha), as well as on coconut (2.15 million ha) plantations. Shade tolerant varieties are now available for upland rice, maize and soybeans to support this effort. Fourth, expansion of new agricultural areas for food crops on potential lands in swamp land (tidal swamp lands, fresh water swamp land and peat land), as well as on non swamp wetlands for irrigated and rain-fed rice fields, and on upland with slopes of &lt;15% for annual upland crops. These four approaches are believed to enable achievement of sustainable food self-sufficiency.</em></p><p> </p>

scholarly journals Land Suitability and Direction of Strategic Agricultural Commodities in East Kalimantan to Support the Development of the New Nation’s Capital of Republic of Indonesia

2021 ◽  
Vol 15 (1) ◽  
pp. 1
Author(s):  
NFN Sukarman ◽  
Erna Suryani ◽  
Husnain Husnain
Keyword(s):  
Paddy Field ◽  
Agricultural Land ◽  
Upland Rice ◽  
Buffer Zone ◽  
Land Suitability ◽  
Agricultural Commodities ◽  
Dry Land ◽  
Suitability Assessment ◽  
East Kalimantan ◽  
The Republic

<p class="JSDLKatakunci"><strong>Abstra</strong><strong>ct</strong><strong>.</strong> The development of the new nation's capital in East Kalimantan must be supported with sufficient food supply. An Agricultural buffer zone must be provided as production area of food crops, horticulture, plantation, and livestock to suffice the food needs. The planning of landuse arrangement in the area required land suitability assessment for various agricultural commodities. The purpose of this paper is to provide information of land suitability in East Kalimantan Province that support the development plan of the new capital of the Republic of Indonesia. Literature studies of the previous research in East Kalimantan Province are carried out by the Indonesian Center for Agricultural Land Resources Research and Development (ICALRRD), as well as other research institutions. Based on the researches by ICALRRD conducted between year 2016-2019, the land suitable for agriculture is quite extensive (7.7 million ha), mostly for dry land farming. It is classified as suitable (S) mainly for plantation, forage, dry land food, horticulture, and upland rice, especially rainfed paddy. Only a small part is suitable for swamp lowland paddy field or tidal paddy field. The efforts to develop the regions include: (1) the expansion of new areas called as extensification (E), and a little through intensification (I). Extensification is conducted by cultivating superior commodities on new opening land that were previously in the form of shrubs or swampy shrubs, and open area or pasture. The available area for extensification program in East Kalimantan is 2.728 million ha. (2) The intensification program is carried out through the development of commodities in the existing land by strengthening the application of land technology, water management, crops varieties selection and cultivation techniques covering 73.2 thousand ha.</p><p><strong>Abstrak. </strong>Rencana pemindahan ibu kota negara ke Kalimantan Timur, perlu didukung oleh kawasan penyangga pertanian (tanaman pangan, hortikultura, perkebunan, dan peternakan) untuk memenuhi kebutuhan pangan masyarakat. Perencanaan penyusunan kawasan tersebut memerlukan data kesesuaian lahan berbagai komoditas pertanian. Tujuan dari tulisan ini adalah untuk memberikan informasi data tentang kesesuaian lahan di Provinsi Kalimantan Timur dalam mendukung rencana pembangunan ibukota baru Republik Indonesia. Metode yang digunakan dalam penulisan makalah ini adalah studi literatur dari hasil penelitian di Provinsi Kalimantan Timur, baik yang dilaksanakan oleh Balai Besar Litbang Sumberdaya Lahan Pertanian (BBSDLP), maupun lembaga penelitian lain. Berdasarkan data hasil penelitian BBSDLP antara tahun 2016-2019, lahan yang sesuai untuk pertanian cukup luas (7,7 juta ha), terutama untuk pertanian lahan kering. Lahan yang tergolong kelas sesuai (S) sebagian besar untuk tanaman perkebunan, pakan ternak, pertanian tanaman pangan lahan kering, hortikultura, dan padi sawah tadah hujan. Hanya sedikit yang sesuai untuk pertanian padi rawa lebak atau padi pasang surut. Upaya yang dapat ditempuh untuk membangun kawasan ini adalah: (1) melalui perluasan areal baru atau ekstensifikasi (E) tanaman perkebunan, pakan ternak, pertanian tanaman pangan lahan kering, hortikultura, dan padi sawah tadah hujan, pada lahan bukaan baru yang sebelumnya berupa semak belukar atau semak belukar rawa, lahan terbuka atau padang rumput seluas 2,728 juta ha. (2) melalui program intensifikasi (I) dilakukan melalui pengembangan komoditas di lahan sawah eksisting melalui penguatan aplikasi teknologi pengelolaan lahan, pengelolaan air, penggunaan varietas unggul, dan teknik budidaya, seluas 73,2 ribu ha.</p>

scholarly journals MULTIFUNGSI PERTANIAN PADI SAWAH DI KABUPATEN POSO

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
MARIANNE REYNELDA MAMONDOL
Keyword(s):  
Food Security ◽  
Cultural Values ◽  
Paddy Field ◽  
Agricultural Land ◽  
Economic Value ◽  
Paddy Fields ◽  
Land Conversion ◽  
Local Climate ◽  
Regional Food ◽  
Control Erosion

Recently the strategic roles of paddy commodity at Poso Regency deal with serious challenges, one of them is the problem of agricultural land conversion as the consequences of rapid regional economic development. Land conversion associates with the fact that many people have not yet known and realized the concepts of economic value and the sustainability of paddy fields as well as the multifunctionality concept. Paddy fields are only considered as the tangible and marketable food products in the form of rice, whereas the another functions which relate to the aspects of environmental, social, and cultural are not much familiar even tend to be denied. Besides the producer of rice product, paddy field agriculture has another functions as to reduce the risk of flood downstream, to control erosion and sedimentation of waterways, to preserve water resources, to improve local climate, to decrease the accumulation of organic wastes, to become the habitat of flora and fauna, to maintain social and cultural values as well as rural attraction, to provide work field, and to support household and regional food security. There are some valuation methods to quantify the values of those functions. The valuation of agriculture multifunctionality indicates that paddy field has real economic value which is higher than that of conventional accounting results, so that paddy fields contributes to society economically, socially, culturally, and environmentally.

scholarly journals PENDEKATAN LOCATION QUOTIENT DAN SHIFT SHARE ANALYSIS DALAM PENENTUAN KOMODITAS UNGGULAN TANAMAN PANGAN DI KABUPATEN BANTUL

2016 ◽  
Vol 25 (2) ◽  
pp. 221 ◽  
Author(s):  
Joko Mulyono ◽  
Khursatul Munibah
Keyword(s):  
Agricultural Land ◽  
Time Series Data ◽  
Series Data ◽  
Food Crops ◽  
Land Conversion ◽  
Competitive Advantages ◽  
Agricultural Commodities ◽  
Ecological Zone ◽  
Location Quotient ◽  
Comparative Advantages

Land conversion causes competition in land use, and thus it is necessary to select leading commodities based on agro ecological zoning (AEZ). This study aimed to determine the leading commodities of food crops in Bantul Regency agro ecological zone. This study was conducted on March 2015. The data used was time series data of food crops harvested between 2008-2012 and agricultural commodities zone maps year 2013 based on AEZ with scale 1:50.000 obtained from the Statistics of Indonesia, Agriculture and Forestry Office, and AIAT. Commodities with comparative advantages were analysed by Location Quotient (LQ) while commodities with competitive advantages were analysed by Shift Share Analysis (SSA). Leading food crops commodities were determined through an overlay process using the ArcGIS software covering analysis results of LQ, SSA and agricultural commodities zone maps based on AEZ with scale 1:50.000. The result showed that the wetland paddy is a leading commodity in the study area. Based on comparative and competitive advantages, and compatibility with agricultural commodities zone based on AEZ, wetland paddy is the most leading commodity compared to corn, soybeans and peanuts. It is because of the distribution of this commodity in 10 districts (Sanden, Kretek, Pundong, Bambanglipuro, Pandak, Bantul, Jetis, Banguntapan, Kasihan, and Sedayu) with total area of 11,667 ha or 39.4% of agricultural land in Bantul Regency

scholarly journals KAJIAN DAYA DUKUNG LAHAN PERTANIAN DALAM MENUNJANG SWASEMBADA PANGAN DI KABUPATEN MINAHASA SELATAN

2017 ◽  
Vol 13 (1) ◽  
pp. 11 ◽  
Author(s):  
Celsius ., Talumingan ◽  
Sherly G. Jocom
Keyword(s):  
Land Use ◽  
Food Security ◽  
Carrying Capacity ◽  
Local Governments ◽  
Agricultural Land ◽  
Economic Knowledge ◽  
Land Resources ◽  
Know How ◽  
Adequate Food ◽  
Self Sufficiency

The general objective of this research is to know how much agricultural land capacity in support of food self-sufficiency in South Minahasa regency. In particular, this study aims to know the area / region in South Minahasa regency which became the basis of the carrying capacity of food security, so that the area becomes a base bias related to population increases. Adadpun benefits of this research is expected to contribute ideas for the South Minahasa local governments and agencies involved in food security in order to address land use so as not to cause problems carrying capacity of land to food self-sufficiency. Contributing of this research is to the development of economic knowledge of the area and land resources. To achieve the objectives to be achieved in the research used a method that determines the level of the carrying capacity of crop lands with the concept of combination of theory Odum, Cristeiler, E Howard and Issard. This study found that the overall average of carrying capacity of crop lands in South Minahasa Regency is 0,414. It means that existing agricultural lands in South Minahasa Regency has not been able to perform self-sufficiency and has not been able to provide adequate food.

scholarly journals Economic valuation of paddy fields: Employment services providers for farmers

2021 ◽  
Vol 1 (1) ◽  
pp. 1-4
Author(s):  
Ani Fitriyah ◽  
Bambang Yudi Ariadi
Keyword(s):  
Production Function ◽  
Analytical Method ◽  
Agricultural Land ◽  
Economic Valuation ◽  
Economic Value ◽  
Research Result ◽  
Rice Fields ◽  
Paddy Fields ◽  
Land Conversion ◽  
Employment Services

Agricultural land conversion (ALC) is economically profitable, but what the community does not pay attention to is the losses caused by the ALC. Economic valuation is one way to calculate the multifunctionality of paddy fields that have overall economic value, including the production function, provider of environmental products/services and socio-culture. This study aims at determining the economic value of paddy fields as employment services providers for farmers. The analytical method employed was the economic valuation. Research result: It shows that the conversion of paddy fields in Pasuruan Regency in 2014-2019 is quite high, averaging 777.7 Ha per year. The economic value of rice fields as an employment services provider in 2019 is IDR 1,922,772,319,000. This value tends to decline due to land conversion since 2014.

scholarly journals Carrying capacity and food self-sufficiency of paddy field resources: NDVI analysis in Batang Regency, Central Java Province, Indonesia

2021 ◽  
Vol 4 (2) ◽  
pp. 245
Author(s):  
Ananto Aji ◽  
Edy Trihatmoko ◽  
Sigit Bayhu Iryanthony
Keyword(s):  
Carrying Capacity ◽  
Paddy Field ◽  
Agricultural Land ◽  
Jel Classification ◽  
Rice Production ◽  
Central Java ◽  
Self Sufficiency ◽  
Per Capita ◽  
Mapping Techniques ◽  
Central Java Province

Food self-sufficiency policy in Indonesia relies on the sustainability of productive land that meets the requirements for carrying capacity of agricultural land. But the fact is that in various regions, the existence of agricultural land resources is increasingly being degraded in terms of quantity and quality. This study aims to evaluate paddy field with NDVI analysis with extensive GIS calculations and integrated with the food self-sufficiency formulas. Monitoring of paddy field area using remote sensing and mapping techniques has been well recognized and efficient. The research was conducted in Batang Regency, Central Java Province, Indonesia, that annually produces 104,211ton rice on average. The results showed that the production of lowland rice is sufficient to meet the daily rice needs of 897.19 gr per capita. The regency also showed a surplus of rice production of more than 342 gr per capita above the daily needs, fulfilling the criteria of food self-sufficiency. Food self-sufficiency classification is associated with the carrying capacity analysis found ca. 4.179 (α>1), revealing that rice production can fulfil the needs of the population of Batang Regency.  JEL Classification 013; Q00; R11

scholarly journals Kebutuhan dan Ketersediaan Lahan Cadangan Untuk Mewujudkan Cita-Cita Indonesia Sebagai Lumbung Pangan Dunia Tahun 2045

2018 ◽  
Vol 15 (1) ◽  
pp. 1
Author(s):  
Anny Mulyani ◽  
Fahmuddin Agus
Keyword(s):  
Sugar Cane ◽  
Agricultural Development ◽  
Agricultural Land ◽  
Upland Rice ◽  
Arable Land ◽  
Food Storage ◽  
World Food ◽  
Self Sufficiency ◽  
The World ◽  
Agricultural Extensification

<p>Arable land availability for agricultural extensification is a determining factor to achieve Indonesia’s food self-sufficiency and to become the world food supplier in 2045. This study aimed to evaluate land reserves for future agricultural development. Spatial analysis was conducted using land cover map, peatland distribution map, indicative map of suspension of new permits, forest status map, licensing map, and agricultural land use recommendation map. The land assumed to be potentially available should be (i) idle land covered by shrub as well as bare land, (ii) agronomically suitable for agriculture, (iii) within the designated area of non-forest uses (APL), conversion production forest (HPK), or production forest (HP), (iv) outside the moratorium area, and (v) outside the licensed area. Analysis results show that out of 29.8 million hectares of idle land, only about 7.9 million hectares are potentially available for future agricultural extensification. The available potential land area is much less than that required to meet the self-sufficiency target and to become the world food storage by 2045, i.e. of 5.3 million hectares for rice crop, shallot and sugar cane, and about 10.3 million hectares for upland rice, maize, soybean, peanut, mungbean, sugar cane, shallot, cassava, and sweet potato. Therefore, the main strategies to take are intensification of existing agricultural land and a strict control of agricultural land conversion.</p><p> </p><p>Abstrak</p><p>Ketersediaan lahan untuk ekstensifikasi lahan pertanian menjadi salah satu faktor penentu keberhasilan untuk mempertahankan swasembada pangan dan untuk menjadikan Indonesia sebagai lumbung pangan dunia menjelang tahun 2045. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengevaluasi cadangan lahan yang tersedia untuk pengembangan areal pertanian ke depan. Analisis spasial dilakukan menggunakan peta tutupan lahan, peta sebaran lahan gambut, peta indikatif penundaan pembukaan izin baru, peta status kawasan hutan, peta perizinan, dan peta arahan tata ruang pertanian. Lahan yang diasumsikan potensial tersedia adalah lahan yang (i) lahan telantar yang ditutupi semak belukar dan lahan terbuka, (ii) secara agronomis sesuai untuk pertanian, (iii) berada pada peruntukan kawasan areal penggunaan lain (APL), hutan produksi konversi (HPK), hutan produski (HP), (iv) berada di luar areal moratorium, dan (v) berada di luar areal yang sudah memiliki perizinan. Hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa dari sekitar 29,8 juta ha lahan telantar, hanya sekitar 7,9 juta ha yang berpotensi tersedia untuk ekstensifikasi pertanian masa depan. Luas lahan potensial tersedia ini jauh lebih rendah dari kebutuhan lahan untuk memenuhi target swasembada dan mewujudkan Indonesia sebagai lumbung pangan dunia menjelang 2045 yaitu 5,3 juta ha untuk padi sawah, bawang dan tebu dan sekitar 10,3 juta ha untuk padi gogo, jagung, kedelai, kacang hijau, kacang tanah, tebu, bawang merah, ubi jalar, ubi kayu. Oleh karena itu, strategi utama yang harus ditempuh adalah intensifikasi lahan pertanian eksisting dan pengendalian konversi lahan pertanian secara ketat.</p>

scholarly journals Identification of agricultural land use change based on machine learning for regional food security analysis in the mountainous region of Kulon Progo regency

2021 ◽  
Vol 922 (1) ◽  
pp. 012060
Author(s):  
L N Sholikah ◽  
Z K Nisa ◽  
B F Pratama ◽  
A G Pradipta ◽  
Ngadisih ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Machine Learning ◽  
Land Use ◽  
Food Security ◽  
Land Use Change ◽  
Agricultural Land ◽  
Google Earth ◽  
Rice Fields ◽  
Land Conversion ◽  
Mountainous Region ◽  
Regional Food

Abstract After New Yogyakarta International Airport (NYIA) opening, Kulon Progo continues to develop, one of which is The Bedah Menoreh route project which passes through the mountainous region. The development encourages agricultural land conversion, which impacts food security in Kulon Progo, especially in the mountainous region. This study aims to identify the conversion of agricultural land in the mountainous region of Kulon Progo Regency in 2005 – 2020 and analyze its impact on regional food security. The method used is a Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) on Landsat Imagery using Machine Learning through Google Earth Engine (GEE) to identify land-use change and mathematical calculations in analyzing regional food security. The result of the supervised classification is a land cover map of the mountainous region of Kulon Progo Regency, which shows that every year the area of rice fields, in general, continues to decrease until 2020 the total area is 2,102.79 ha with a rate of agricultural land conversion -114.87 ha/year. It causes regional food security to be in a food-insecure condition, even though the availability of rice fields can be used for food self-sufficiency for up to 53 years. Other factors such as climate, rice seeds, soil, and water quality, in this case, are quite influential in rice production, not only productivity and agricultural land area.

scholarly journals The Effect of Land use and Subsidized Fertilizer for Rice Production Case Study: Tangerang District, Banten

2021 ◽  
Vol 232 ◽  
pp. 01008
Author(s):  
Tian Mulyaqin ◽  
Septi Kusumawati ◽  
Nita Winanti ◽  
Kardiyono
Keyword(s):  
Land Use ◽  
Paddy Field ◽  
Agricultural Land ◽  
Organic Fertilizer ◽  
Rice Production ◽  
Land Conversion ◽  
Interview Survey ◽  
Significant Factors

Tangerang District is one of the rice producers in Banten Province. The intensification of rice production is one of the solutions due to the agricultural land conversion problem in Tangerang. The purpose of this study is to analyze the farmer perception about subsidized fertilizer and we also analyze the effect of land use and subsidized fertilizer for rice production at the farmer level in Tangerang. The data used in this study were collected through an interview survey using a structured questioner to 35 respondents in Tangerang in 2016. The data were analyzed using descriptive and quantitative analysis. The result showed that the farmers perceive that the availability of subsidized fertilizer is frequently rare especially for nitrogen fertilizer and phosphorus fertilizer. The study also shows the rice production at the farmer level was affected by land use, the application of subsidized urea fertilizer, the application of organic fertilizer, and the application of returning the straw to the paddy field. All of these significant factors on rice production were inelastic in the short term and long term. It is important to decrease agricultural land conversion and returning the straw to the paddy field to maintaining rice production in Tangerang.

scholarly journals Analisis Implementasi Kebijakan Perlindungan Lahan Gambut Untuk Tanaman Pangan Berkelanjutan

2021 ◽  
Vol 6 (1) ◽  
pp. 42-64
Author(s):  
Wenny Ira Reverawaty ◽  
Muhammad Yusuf
Keyword(s):  
Oil Palm ◽  
Agricultural Land ◽  
Peat Soil ◽  
Narrative Form ◽  
Environmental Damage ◽  
Food Crops ◽  
Land Conversion ◽  
Sustainable Food ◽  
Depth Interview ◽  
The Village

The massive expansion of oil palm plantations for the benefit of the palm oil industry and its derivatives has an impact on ecosystem and environmental damage as well as large demands for land conversion that threaten agricultural land for food crops, which also threatens food security on it. Jebus Village, Kumpeh District, Muaro Jambi Regency, Jambi Province which has peat soil type for most of its land, in this case is one of the villages facing the problem of oil palm plantation expansion and land conversion which is starting to threaten agricultural land for food crops. Therefore, the Jebus Village Regulation No.1 of 2017 concerning the Protection of Peatlands for Sustainable Food Crops and Plantations was made to protect food land in Jebus village. This study aims to analyze the implementation of peatland protection for sustainable food crops in Jebus village. This research uses descriptive qualitative methods. The collection of various data is carried out with a combination of in-depth interview and observation techniques and is supported by data from research results or reports. Data processing uses coding to obtain meaning which is presented in narrative form. This study found that the implementation of the Village Regulation was able to reduce the threat of damage to peatlands, restrain the rate of conversion of food agricultural land into plantations that were not environmentally friendly. However, the implementation of this policy has not been able to guarantee the availability of staple food (rice) for the Jebus village community. In addition, policy implementation faces challenges that cannot be resolved at the village scale.

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