Nest Characteristics of the Sumatran Orangutan (Pongo abelii) in the Wildlife Sanctuary Soraya Station in Aceh Province, Indonesia

Orangutans (Pongo spp.) populations used to be widely distributed throughout Southeast Asia, from Java in the south to the Southern China in the north during the Pleistocene. Their populations have declined up to 75% of their original size and are now distributed only in parts of the tropical rainforests of Borneo and Sumatra. Pongo pygmaeus, Pongo tapanuliensis and Pongo abelii are the three most representative species, in this study, here we discussed the latter. Sumatran forests are generally suffering from deforestation with rates ranging from 3.74% to 49.85% between 2000 and 2012. Thus, human wildlife conflict intensity has escalated and gained more traction. Orangutans are known as arboreal great apes and need to build nests for resting. We applied the transect line method (three transects; each 1,000 m long) at different elevations in Soraya Research Station, Gelombang Village, Sultan Daulat sub-district, Subulussalam district, and assessed the nest characteristics. The characteristics are: (1) nesting position referring to the position of nest on a tree; (2) nest successional stages defining the age and leaf decay used in constructing a nest indicated with I (new) until V (almost gone); and (3) nest density to predict the density of nest per square km. Afterwards, the identified nesting trees along the transect were further identified based on their species, and assessed based on three characteristics (the tree height, diameter and the height of a nest measured from the soil). A total of 27 nests were found, and 44% were located in transect III or at the riparian. Out of 27, four orangutans’ nests were found on Moraceae (Streblus elongatus) and Myrtaceae (Syzigium spp.), while three nests were found on Dipterocarpus sp. The tree height, tree diameter and nest height were 10 m–25 m (mean = 17.5 m; SD = ± 0.25), 10 cm–30 cm (mean = 20 cm; SD = ± 0.4) and 16 m–20 m (mean = 18 m; SD = ± 0.35), respectively. Meanwhile, nest density calculated based on the form: d = [N/ (L* 2w)], and the values obtained were 8.4, 13.45, 26.9 nests/km2 located on transect I, II and III or at the riparian. The most commonly found nest successional stages and position were stage III and position 3, respectively. This study could serve as a baseline research in primate conservation and nest characterisation could be used as guidance for any future activity planning (e.g. tree reforestation) in a particular region and the existence of various tree species diversity are indispensable for maintaining orangutan habitats’ quality.

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Studi Karakteristik Sarang Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus morio) di Resort Sangatta dan Resort Sangkima Taman Nasional Kutai

SCISCITATIO ◽

10.21460/sciscitatio.1 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 1 (1) ◽

Author(s):

Marcelina Tikurara Londong Allo ◽

Kisworo ◽

Suhendra

Keyword(s):

Tree Species ◽

National Park ◽

Tree Height ◽

Pongo Pygmaeus ◽

Average Height ◽

Tree Diameter ◽

Transect Line ◽

Nest Height ◽

Nest Type

Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus morio) merupakan satwa langka yang harus dikonservasi melalui pelestarian Taman Nasional Kutai (TNK). Studi karakteristik sarang orangutan merupakan bagian dari upaya pelestarian. Metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah menggunakan jalur transek dengan menghitung sarang orangutan serta mencatat karakteristik sarang orangutan yang meliputi kelas sarang, posisi sarang, tinggi sarang, tinggi pohon, diameter pohon dan jenis pohon sarang. Pada lokasi penelitian ditemukan sebanyak 173 sarang orangutan yang terdiri dari 84 sarang di resort Sangatta dan 89 sarang di resort Sangkima. Jenis sarang didominasi oleh kelas sarang C dan D dengan posisi sarang sebagian besar terdapat pada ujung dahan (UD) di resort Sangatta, posisi sarang terbanyak ada pada ujung dahan (UD) dan pucuk pohon (PP) di resort Sangkima. Rata-rata tinggi sarang orangutan adalah 12,2 - 40,2 m, diameter pohon 17,4 - 110 cm, dan tinggi pohon 12,2 - 40,2 m di resort Sangatta. Pada resort Sangkima rata-rata tinggi sarang orangutan adalah 10,2 - 24,2 m dengan diameter pohon 20 - 109,4 cm dan rata-rata tinggi pohon 14-28,6 m. Karakteristik sarang orangutan menjadi indikator kondisi habitat orangutan yang ada di TNK. Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus morio) is a rare animal that must be conserved through the preservation of the Kutai National Park (KNP). Study of orangutan nest characteristics is part of conservation efforts. The method used in this study is to use a transect line by counting orangutan nests and noting orangutan nest characteristics which include nest class, nest position, nest height, tree height, tree diameter and nest tree species. At the study site, 173 orangutan nests were found, consisting of 84 nests at Sangatta resort and 89 nests at Sangkima resort. The nest type is dominated by the nest classes C and D with the nest position mostly found at the tip of the branch (UD) at Sangatta resort, the position of most nests is at the tip of the branch (UD) and tree tops (PP) at the Sangkima resort. The average height of orangutan nests is 12.2 - 40.2 m, tree diameter 17.4 - 110 cm, and tree height 12.2 - 40.2 m at Sangatta resort. At Sangkima resort, the average height of orangutan nests is 10.2 - 24.2 m with a tree diameter of 20 - 109.4 cm and an average tree height of 14-28.6 m. The characteristics of orangutan nests are an indicator of the condition of orangutan habitat in KNP.

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Spray Volume, Canopy Density, and Other Factors Involved in Thinner Efficacy

HortScience ◽

10.21273/hortsci.33.3.553d ◽

1998 ◽

Vol 33 (3) ◽

pp. 553d-553

Author(s):

C.R. Unrath

Keyword(s):

Tree Height ◽

Tree Canopy ◽

Tree Size ◽

Water Volume ◽

Canopy Density ◽

The North ◽

Run Off ◽

Tree Canopies ◽

Average Water ◽

Water Volumes

Historically, most airblast chemical applications to apple orchards used a single “average” water volume, resulting in variability of coverage with tree size and also the greatest variable in chemical thinning. This coverage variability can be eliminated by properly quantifying the tree canopy, as tree row volume (TRV), and relating that volume to airblast water rate for adequate coverge. Maximum typical tree height, cross-row limb spread, and between-row spacing are used to quantify the TRV. Further refinement is achieved by adjusting the water volume for tree canopy density. The North Carolina TRV model allows a density adjustment from 0.7 gal/1000 ft3 of TRV for young, very open tree canopies to 1.0 gal/1000 ft3 of TRV for large, thick tree canopies to deliver a full dilute application for maximum water application (to the point of run-off). Most dilute pesticide applications use 70% of full dilute to approach the point of drip (pesticide dilute) to not waste chemicals and reduce non-target environmental exposure. From the “chemical load” (i.e., lb/acre) calculated for the pesticide dilute application, the proper chemical load for lower (concentrate) water volumes can be accurately determined. Another significant source of variability is thinner application response is spray distribution to various areas of the tree. This variability is related to tree configuration, light, levels, fruit set, and natural thinning vs. the need for chemical thinning. Required water delivery patterns are a function of tree size, form, spacing, and density, as well as sprayer design (no. of nozzles and fan size). The TRV model, density adjustments, and nozzle patterns to effectively hit the target for uniform crop load will be addressed.

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Temporal and Spatial Heterogeneity of PM2.5 Related to Meteorological and Socioeconomic Factors across China during 2000–2018

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health ◽

10.3390/ijerph19020707 ◽

2022 ◽

Vol 19 (2) ◽

pp. 707

Author(s):

Xiangxue Zhang ◽

Changxiu Cheng

Keyword(s):

Socioeconomic Factors ◽

Southern China ◽

Yangtze River Delta ◽

Socioeconomic Factor ◽

Factors Affecting ◽

The North ◽

The Status ◽

Risk Areas ◽

Future Direction ◽

Q Values

In recent years, air pollution caused by PM2.5 in China has become increasingly severe. This study applied a Bayesian space–time hierarchy model to reveal the spatiotemporal heterogeneity of the PM2.5 concentrations in China. In addition, the relationship between meteorological and socioeconomic factors and their interaction with PM2.5 during 2000–2018 was investigated based on the GeoDetector model. Results suggested that the concentration of PM2.5 across China first increased and then decreased between 2000 and 2018. Geographically, the North China Plain and the Yangtze River Delta were high PM2.5 pollution areas, while Northeast and Southwest China are regarded as low-risk areas for PM2.5 pollution. Meanwhile, in Northern and Southern China, the population density was the most important socioeconomic factor affecting PM2.5 with q values of 0.62 and 0.66, respectively; the main meteorological factors affecting PM2.5 were air temperature and vapor pressure, with q values of 0.64 and 0.68, respectively. These results are conducive to our in-depth understanding of the status of PM2.5 pollution in China and provide an important reference for the future direction of PM2.5 pollution control.

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Increase in perennial forage yields driven by climate change, at Apukka Research Station, Rovaniemi, 1980-2017

Agricultural and Food Science ◽

10.23986/afsci.85141 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 29 (2) ◽

Author(s):

Oiva Niemeläinen ◽

Antti Hannukkala ◽

Lauri Jauhiainen ◽

Kaija Hakala ◽

Markku Niskanen ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Climate Change ◽

Festuca Arundinacea ◽

Ground Cover ◽

Growing Season ◽

Phleum Pratense ◽

Research Station ◽

Strong Impact ◽

Meadow Fescue ◽

Forage Crops ◽

The North

The official variety trials at Rovaniemi, Finland (66.58°N, 26.01°E) in 1980–2017 show a substantial increase in dry matter yields (DMY) of timothy (Phleum pratense), meadow fescue (Festuca pratensis) and tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea), coinciding with a 156 °Cd increase in the average growing season Tsum and a 461 °Cd decrease in the average winter frost sum for the same period. The annual DMY of timothy was 3128, 4668, 8385 and 9352 kg ha-1 in the periods (P) 1980–1989 (P1), 1990–1999 (P2), 2000–2009 (P3), and 2010–2017 (P4). The first cut yielded 1792, 2166, 4008 and 4473, and the second cut 1337, 2503, 4378 and 4879 kg ha-1, respectively. Yields of meadow fescue followed a similar pattern. The first cut was about ten days and the second cut about one week earlier on P4 than on P1. Shorter snow cover period, milder winters, higher live ground cover of timothy in spring, and higher temperature sum during the growing season were most likely responsible for the yield increase. The results indicate a strong impact of climate change on DMY of perennial forage crops in the north.

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Evaluation of the provenance plot “Hrubá Skála” (Northern Bohemia) with grand fir at the age of 36 years

Journal of Forest Science ◽

10.17221/79/2016-jfs ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 63 (No. 2) ◽

pp. 75-87 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Fulín Martin ◽

Novotný Petr ◽

Podrázský Vilém ◽

Beran František ◽

Dostál Jaroslav ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Czech Republic ◽

Norway Spruce ◽

Coastal Region ◽

Tree Height ◽

Douglas Fir ◽

Stem Volume ◽

Silver Fir ◽

The Czech Republic ◽

The North ◽

Oregon Cascades

The article aims to evaluate the research provenance plot established in 1980 in locality No. 214 – Hrubá Skála (in the north of the Czech Republic), where nine provenances of grand fir (Abies grandis (Douglas ex D. Don) Lindley) provided in the framework of the International Union of Forest Research Organizations project, and one provenance of grand fir, Norway spruce, silver fir and Douglas-fir from a standard commercial source are tested. We present the results of tree height, stem DBH, stem volume production and health status after 36 years. The results correspond with similar experiments in the Czech Republic and abroad and suggest that grand fir provenances from Vancouver Island (British Columbia, Canada) and the Washington (USA) State coastal region show the best production features, while the Oregon Cascades, Idaho and Montana provenances grow more slowly. Comparison with other tree species indicates that the production of grand fir at the investigated age exceeds the production of both Norway spruce and silver fir, and equalizes or gently exceeds even Douglas-fir.

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Estimation of emissions from biomass burning in China (2003–2017) based on MODIS fire radiative energy data

Biogeosciences ◽

10.5194/bg-16-1629-2019 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 16 (7) ◽

pp. 1629-1640 ◽

Cited By ~ 15

Author(s):

Lifei Yin ◽

Pin Du ◽

Minsi Zhang ◽

Mingxu Liu ◽

Tingting Xu ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Biomass Burning ◽

Forest Fires ◽

Crop Residue ◽

Crop Yields ◽

Southern China ◽

Farming System ◽

Radiative Energy ◽

Fire Emissions ◽

The North ◽

Significant Downward Trend

Abstract. Biomass burning plays a significant role in air pollution and climate change. In this study, we used a method based on fire radiative energy (FRE) to develop a biomass burning emission inventory for China from 2003 to 2017. Daily fire radiative power (FRP) data derived from 1 km MODIS Thermal Anomalies/Fire products (MOD14/MYD14) were used to calculate FRE and combusted biomass. Available emission factors were assigned to four biomass burning types: forest, cropland, grassland, and shrubland fires. The farming system and crop types in different temperate zones were taken into account in this research. Compared with traditional methods, the FRE method was found to provide a more reasonable estimate of emissions from small fires. The estimated average annual emission ranges, with a 90 % confidence interval, were 91.4 (72.7–108.8) Tg CO2 yr−1, 5.0 (2.3–7.8) Tg CO yr−1, 0.24 (0.05–0.48) Tg CH4 yr−1, 1.43 (0.53–2.35) Tg NMHC yr−1, 0.23 (0.05–0.45) Tg NOx yr−1, 0.09 (0.02–0.17) Tg NH3 yr−1, 0.03 (0.01–0.05) Tg SO2 yr−1, 0.04 (0.01–0.08) Tg BC yr−1, 0.27 (0.07–0.49) Tg OC yr−1, 0.51 (0.19–0.84) Tg PM2.5 yr−1, 0.57 (0.15–1.05) Tg PM10 yr−1, where NMHC, BC, and OC are nonmethane hydrocarbons, black carbon, and organic carbon, respectively. Forest fires are determined to be the primary contributor to open fire emissions, accounting for 45 % of the total CO2 emissions (average 40.8 Tg yr−1). Crop residue burning ranked second place with a large portion of 39 % (average 35.3 Tg yr−1). During the study period, emissions from forest and grassland fires showed a significant downward trend. Crop residue emissions continued to rise during 2003–2015 but dropped by 42 % in 2015–2016. Emissions from shrubland were negligible and little changed. Forest and grassland fires are concentrated in northeastern China and southern China, especially in the dry season (from October to March of the following year). Plain areas with high crop yields, such as the North China Plain, experienced high agricultural fire emissions in harvest seasons. Most shrubland fires were located in Yunnan and Guangdong provinces. The resolution of our inventory (daily, 1 km) is much higher than previous inventories, such as GFED4s and GFASv1.0. It could be used in global and regional air quality modeling.

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Influence of slope aspect on the microbial properties of rhizospheric and non-rhizospheric soil on the Loess Plateau, China

10.5194/se-2017-137 ◽

2018 ◽

Author(s):

Ze Min Ai ◽

Jiao Yang Zhang ◽

Hong Fei Liu ◽

Sha Xue ◽

Guo Bin Liu

Keyword(s):

Loess Plateau ◽

Microbial Biomass Carbon ◽

Phospholipid Fatty Acid ◽

Slope Aspect ◽

Research Station ◽

Rhizospheric Soil ◽

The Loess Plateau ◽

The South ◽

Microbial Properties ◽

The North

Abstract. Slope aspect is an important topographic factor, but its effect on the microbial properties of grassland rhizospheric soil (RS) and non-rhizospheric soil (NRS) remain unclear. A field experiment was conducted at the Ansai Research Station on the Loess Plateau in China to test the influence of slope aspects (south-facing, north-facing, and northeast-facing slopes, all with Artemisia sacrorum as the dominant species) on RS and NRS microbial biomass carbon (MBC) and phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) contents, and the rhizospheric effect (RE) of various microbial indices. MBC content differed significantly among the slope aspects in RS but not in NRS, and RE for MBC content in the south-facing slope was larger than that in the north-facing slope. RS total, bacterial, and gram-positive bacterial PLFA contents in the south-facing slope were significantly lower than those in the north- and northeast-facing slopes, and RS gram-negative bacterial (G-) and actinomycete PLFA contents in the south-facing slope were significantly lower than those in the north-facing slope. Differently, NRS total, bacterial, and G- PLFA contents in the north-facing slope were significantly higher than those in the south- and northeast-facing slopes, and NRS fungal and actinomycete PLFA contents in the north- and south-facing slopes were significantly higher than those in the northeast-facing slope. RE for all PLFA contents except fungal in the northeast-facing slope were higher than those in the south-facing slope. Slope aspect significantly but differentially affected the microbial properties in RS and NRS, and the variable influence was due an evident RE for most microbial properties.

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Cold Climate Winegrape Cultivar Sensitivity to Sulfur in the Northern Great Plains Region of the United States

HortTechnology ◽

10.21273/horttech03638-16 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 27 (2) ◽

pp. 235-239

Author(s):

Nagehan D. Köycü ◽

John E. Stenger ◽

Harlene M. Hatterman-Valenti

Keyword(s):

United States ◽

Great Plains ◽

The United States ◽

Organic Production ◽

Cold Climate ◽

Future Research ◽

Northern Great Plains ◽

Research Station ◽

Injury Incidence ◽

The North

Elemental sulfur is commonly applied for powdery mildew (Erysiphe necator) protection on winegrape (Vitis sp.). The product may be used in a diversified, integrated disease management system to help prevent fungicide resistance to products with other modes of action. Additionally, sulfur may be used as a control option in organic systems. Applications of sulfur have been known to cause phytotoxic injury to susceptible winegrape cultivars, particularly those stemming from fox grape (Vitis labrusca) parentage. To improve recommendations to producers in the northern Great Plains region of the United States, a comparison of injury incidence and severity, as well as effects on yield characteristics was undertaken for 13 regional cultivars exposed to three sulfur rates (0, 2.4, and 4.8 lb/acre a.i.) at a North Dakota State University Research Station near Absaraka, ND. Overall, four cultivars (Bluebell, Baltica, Sabrevois, and King of the North) of the 13 cultivars tested showed phytotoxic symptoms. Injury severity and incidence of these cultivars differed between years and across rates. ‘Bluebell’ showed consistent and severe sulfur injury symptoms. Injury to the other three susceptible cultivars tended to vary by the given environment, with King of the North generally showing the lowest injury response. Injury symptoms were not found to be associated with the overall yield or cluster weight. Results suggest that alternative spray programs that exclude sulfur-based fungicides should be recommended for ‘Bluebell’, ‘Baltica’, ‘Sabrevois’, and ‘King of the North’, whereas sulfur-based fungicides may be applied to ‘Alpenglow’, ‘ES 12-6-18’, ‘Frontenac’, ‘Frontenac Gris’, ‘La Crescent’, ‘Marquette’, ‘Somerset Seedless’, ‘St. Croix’, and ‘Valiant’. Observations on fruit ripening in 2014 suggest that future research is needed to determine if a reduction of fruit quality may occur in some seasons with repeated sulfur applications or with successive annual sulfur applications for susceptible cultivars if used in an organic production system.

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Effects of summer irrigation and trampling in dairy pastures on soil physical properties and earthworm number and species composition

Australian Journal of Agricultural Research ◽

10.1071/a94132 ◽

1997 ◽

Vol 48 (7) ◽

pp. 1059 ◽

Cited By ~ 16

Author(s):

Lisa A. Lobry de Bruyn ◽

T. J. Kingston

Keyword(s):

Soil Surface ◽

Sampling Period ◽

Study Data ◽

Lumbricus Rubellus ◽

Research Station ◽

Pasture Production ◽

North West ◽

The North ◽

Main Plot ◽

On Farm

In 1989 a replicated split-plot trial on a Krasnozem soil was established at Elliott Research Station (ERS) in the north-west of Tasmania, as well as 14 on-farm trials in newly irrigated pastures on 3 different soil types (Alluvial, Podzolic, Krasnozem) in the dairy districts of Scottsdale, Smithton, and Deloraine. There were 3 main treatments at ERS: irrigated before grazing, irrigated after grazing, and grazed and not irrigated. Part of each main plot was fenced to prevent trampling but still allowed grazing. Effects of summer irrigation and trampling by dairy cows were examined for pasture production, and soil chemical and structural properties. Summer irrigation at ERS and on-farm trials has led to a decline in soil structure indicated by slower ponded water in filtration rates on irrigated plots compared with the dryland plots. The decline in ponded water in filtration rates suggests a reduction in macroporosity, especially in the soil surface. However, other indicators for soil structural change in the top 100 mm|percentage water-stable aggregates (>2·5 mm) and bulk density|revealed no significant variation between the irrigated and dryland paddocks. There were, however, higher water in filtration rates and lower bulk densities in the untrampled areas than the trampled areas at ERS. Pasture production at ERS was about 50% more with irrigation in each of the 2 years of the study. Data collected at ERS in autumn and spring on the numbers of Aporrectodea caliginosa(Savigny) and Lumbricus rubellus (Hoffmeister) earthworms showed that they respond quite differently to irrigation. After 2 irrigation seasons, A. caliginosa numbers in irrigated plots dropped by over 50%, whereas in the dryland plots densities of this earthworm have remained around 390 earthworms/m 2. In contrast the densities of L. rubellus at ERS rose under irrigation practices, especially in the autumn{winter sampling period. Therefore, with the advent of summer irrigation at ERS, there was a shift in earthworm composition from a fauna dominated by A. caliginosa to a fauna with an increasing proportion of L. rubellus and a decreasing number of A. caliginosa. The typical dairy pasture in the on-farm trials recorded 2 main species, A. caliginosa (70%) and L. rubellus (30%). Total earthworm densities were highest in the north-west (Smithton) region of the State (293{351 earthworms/m 2) regardless of soil type, and the lowest densities were recorded in the Alluvial soils of Deloraine (96 earthworms/m 2). The north-west area also had the most diverse earthworm fauna, with 5 species recorded in one site: A. caliginosa, A. longa, Allolobophora chlorotica, L. rubellus, and O. cyaneum. Summer irrigation effects after 2 seasons on earthworm composition and abundance on dairy farms caused no significant change in A. caliginosa numbers, but there was a 45% increase in the numbers of L. rubellus in irrigated treatments. L. rubellus was considerably more active over summer in irrigated paddocks (25 earthworms/m 2) than in non-irrigated paddocks (7 earthworms/m 2). In contrast the number of A. caliginosa recorded in dryland paddocks was not statistically different to the irrigated paddocks, but the A. caliginosa in dryland paddocks were mostly inactive 8-20 mm from the soil surface.

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Phenotypic and genotypic signature of saponin chemical composition in Chinese wild soybean (Glycine soja): revealing genetic diversity, geographical variation and dispersal history of the species

Crop and Pasture Science ◽

10.1071/cp18214 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 69 (11) ◽

pp. 1126

Author(s):

Yuya Takahashi ◽

Xiang-Hua Li ◽

Chigen Tsukamoto ◽

Ke-Jing Wang

Keyword(s):

Genetic Diversity ◽

Chemical Composition ◽

Genetic Structure ◽

Southern China ◽

Glycine Soja ◽

Wild Soybean ◽

Ice Age ◽

High Genetic Diversity ◽

The North ◽

Or Genes

Saponin chemical composition was phenotyped and genotyped, and saponin composition-based geographical genetic diversity and differentiation were evaluated in Chinese wild soybean (Glycine soja Sieb. & Zucc.). Thirty-two phenotypes and 34 genotypes were confirmed from 3805 wild soybean accessions. Eleven phenotypes (AaαK, AaαIK, AaαIJK, AaBcEαJ, AaBcαK, AbEαIJ, AbαK, AbαIK, AbαIJK, AbβHAb and Aβ0) were newly detected. Four genes had frequencies: Sg-1a 78.8% and Sg-1b 21.0% at the Sg-1 locus; Sg-4 30.7% and Sg-6e 13.7% at their respective loci. The north-eastern and southern populations showed high genetic diversity; the Northeast region contained more novel variants (AuAe, A0, A0Bc, αH, αI αJ, αK, and AbβHAb), and the southern populations contained high frequencies of the Sg-4 gene. Gene differentiation (Fst) analysis suggested that Sg-4 and four group-α saponin alleles or genes (Sg-6e, Sg-6h, Sg-6i, Sg-6j) were important factors influencing the genetic structure and differentiation in Chinese wild soybeans. Geographical differentiation was characterised mainly by latitudinal differences, with two primary groups (north and south) based on saponin genes. Chinese wild soybean accessions differed from Japanese and South Korean ones in genetic structure based on saponin composition, the latter two being likely to have spread from southern China in the glacial stages during the last Ice Age.

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