scholarly journals Soil pH and the Foliar Macronutrient/Micronutrient Balance of Green and Interveinally Chlorotic Pin Oaks

1983 ◽  
Vol 1 (4) ◽  
pp. 99-104
Author(s):  
A. Steven Messenger
Keyword(s):  
Soil Ph ◽  
Ammonium Phosphate ◽  
Npk Fertilizers ◽  
Foliar N ◽  
Ph Values ◽  
Total Range ◽  
Iron Deficient ◽  
Foliar Concentrations ◽  
Green Condition ◽  
Tree Foliage

Soil pH values around chlorotic pin oaks and green pin oaks were significantly different to a depth of 55 cm. Throughout that depth, average values around green trees were 6.1–6.8; those around chlorotic trees averaged 7.2–7.4 and were within a total range of 6.7–7.9. Mean foliar concentrations of Fe, Mn, and Zn were each significantly lower in chlorotic tree foliage for at least 1 of the 3 seasonal sampling periods. Mean concentrations of P, K, and Mg were each significantly higher in chlorotic tree foliage for at least 1 of the 3 sampling periods. Eighty-six percent of all chlorotic tree samples (159) could be distinguished from all green tree samples (124) either by lower micronutrient concentrations or higher macronutrient/micronutrient ratios. As treated trees progressed from a chlorotic to a totally green condition, each underwent reductions in foliar N and P concentrations. Green trees fertilized with ammonium phosphate had significantly lower concentrations of Fe, Cu, and K + Ca + Mg concurrent with significantly higher concentrations of N and P when compared to the controls. It is concluded that chlorotic pin oaks should not be deemed as simply iron-deficient and that indiscriminant fertilization of pin oaks or the lawns around them with NPK fertilizers may be deleterious.

Soil acidity in 1970 and 1989 in a coniferous forest in southwest Finland

1998 ◽  
Vol 78 (3) ◽  
pp. 477-479 ◽  
Author(s):  
C. J. Westman ◽  
S. Jauhiainen
Keyword(s):  
Key Words ◽  
Soil Ph ◽  
Soil Acidity ◽  
Mineral Soil ◽  
Coniferous Forest ◽  
Soil Layers ◽  
Water Suspension ◽  
Ph Values ◽  
Humus Layer ◽  
Repeated Sampling

Forest soil pH in southwest Finland was measured with identical sampling and analysing methods in 1970 and 1989. The acidity of the organic humus layer increased significantly as pH values measured on water and on salt suspensions decreased between the two sampling dates. For the mineral soil layers, no unambiguous trend was found. pH values measured on salt suspension tended to be unchanged or lower, while pH on water suspension in some soil layers were even higher in 1989 than in 1970. Key words: pH, repeated sampling

scholarly journals Adsorption of Heavy Metals on Soil Collected from Lixisol of Typical Karst Areas in the Presence of CaCO3 and Soil Clay and Their Competition Behavior

2020 ◽  
Vol 12 (18) ◽  
pp. 7315
Author(s):  
Guandi He ◽  
Zhenming Zhang ◽  
Xianliang Wu ◽  
Mingyang Cui ◽  
Jiachun Zhang ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Heavy Metals ◽  
Soil Sample ◽  
Soil Ph ◽  
Clay Content ◽  
Guizhou Province ◽  
Metal Exposure ◽  
Risk Area ◽  
High Risk Area ◽  
Ph Values ◽  
Pseudo Second Order

The content of heavy metals in the soil in Guizhou Province, which is a high-risk area for heavy metal exposure, is significantly higher than that in other areas in China. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the ability of CaCO3 and clay to accumulate heavy metals in topsoil sample collected from Lixisol using the method of indoor simulation. The results showed that the contents of Cu, Zn, Cd, Cr, Pb, Hg and As in the soil sample were 10.8 mg/kg, 125 mg/kg, 0.489 mg/kg, 23.5 mg/kg, 22.7 mg/kg, 58.3 mg/kg and 45.4 mg/kg, respectively. The soil pH values increased with the CaCO3 concentration in the soil, and the fluctuation of the soil pH values was weak after the CaCO3 concentrations reached 100 g/kg. The adsorption capacity of lime soil increased by approximately 10 mg/kg on average, and the desorption capacity decreased by approximately 300 mg/kg on average. The desorption of all heavy metals in this study did not change with increasing clay content. Pseudo-second-order kinetics were more suitable for describing the adsorption kinetics of heavy metals on the soil material, as evidenced by the higher R2 value. The Freundlich model can better describe the adsorption process of As on lime soil. The process of As, Cr, Cd and Hg adsorption on the soil sample was spontaneous and entropy-driven. Additionally, the process of Cu and Pb adsorption on the soil materials was spontaneous and enthalpy-driven. Generally, the adsorption and desorption of heavy metals in polluted soil increased and decreased, respectively, with increasing CaCO3 content. The effect of calcium carbonate on the accumulation of heavy metals in soil was greater than that of clay. In summary, CaCO3 and pH values in soil can be appropriately added in several areas polluted by heavy metals to enhance the crop yield and reduce the adsorption of heavy metals in soils.

Effect of Trifluralin and Metribuzin Combinations on Soybean Tolerance to Metribuzin

Weed Science ◽  
1977 ◽  
Vol 25 (1) ◽  
pp. 88-93 ◽  
Author(s):  
James S. Ladlie ◽  
William F. Meggitt ◽  
Donald Penner
Keyword(s):  
Glycine Max ◽  
Soil Ph ◽  
Root Development ◽  
Field Trials ◽  
Soybean Plant ◽  
Ph Values ◽  
High Soil

In field trials, soybeans [Glycine max(L.) Merr.] treated with trifluralin [α,α,α-trifluoro-2,6-dinitro-N,N-dipropyl-p-toluidine] at 0.56 and 0.84 kg/ha were protected from injury by metribuzin [4-amino-6-tert-butyl-3-(methylthio-as-triazine-5(4H)one] at 0.28 to 1.12 kg/ha. Soybean injury from metribuzin at high soil pH values was reduced by applying it in combination with trifluralin. Trifluralin also protected soybeans from injury caused by low rates of atrazine [2-chloro-4-(ethylamino)-6-(isopropylamino)-s-triazine] greenhouse studies. The trifluralin treatment reduced root development and greatly reduced14C-atrazine and14C-metribuzin uptake and content within the soybean plant.

INFLUENCE OF SOIL pH AND HUMIDITY ON SURVIVAL OF CEPHALOSPORIUM GRAMINEUM IN INFESTED WHEAT STRAW

1968 ◽  
Vol 48 (3) ◽  
pp. 245-252 ◽  
Author(s):  
G. W. Bruehl ◽  
P. Lai
Keyword(s):  
Soil Ph ◽  
Higher Plants ◽  
Water Levels ◽  
Alkaline Soil ◽  
Surface Layers ◽  
Trichoderma Spp ◽  
Ph Values ◽  
Ph Range ◽  
Cephalosporium Gramineum ◽  
Wilting Point

Cephalosporium gramineum survived in and sporulated most profusely on wheat straws in soil at pH 3.9 to 5.5. Strongly acid (pH 3.3) and alkaline soil (pH 7.6 or greater) reduced survival. The sporodochial stage (Hymenula cerealis) formed at pH values between 3.9 and 8.4, but most abundantly at pH 4.8 to 5.1. While acidity favored both saprophytic survival and sporulation, the pH’s of most wheat lands of Washington are within the pH range favorable for the pathogen.Saprophytic colonization of straw by Trichoderma spp. was favored by acidity (greatest at pH 3.3 to 3.9), and colonization by saprophytic Fusarium spp. by alkalinity (greatest at pH 8.2 to 8.8).Air-dried soil was brought to various relative humidities (RH) over glycerine and water solutions. Cephalosporium gramineum survived best in straw in contact with soil at the lowest RH tested (ca. 82%) and least well at an RH near 90%. Survival was reduced in soils with relative humidities between 90 and 86%, water levels below those of soil at the permanent wilting point for higher plants. Such humidities exist in surface layers of summerfallow and crop lands during portions of the summer in Washington.Penicillium brevi-compactum and P. steckii were the main colonists of the straws at RH values of 95% or lower.

The effect of soil pH on potassium intensity and release of non-exchangeable potassium to ryegrass

1970 ◽  
Vol 75 (3) ◽  
pp. 571-576 ◽  
Author(s):  
A. Islam ◽  
J. Bolton
Keyword(s):  
Soil Ph ◽  
Sandy Soil ◽  
Acid Soils ◽  
The Other ◽  
Exchangeable Potassium ◽  
Air Drying ◽  
Ph Values ◽  
Small Constant ◽  
Activity Ratios ◽  
Exchangeable Form

Ryegrass was used to remove potassium from two acid soils limed to different pH values. Most non-exchangeable potassium was removed from the unlimed soils (pH 4·5) but differences in removal between pH 5·5 and 7·0 were small. Air-drying the soils after cropping released further potassium into the exchangeable form in amounts independent of soil pH.Equilibrium potassium activity ratios (ARK) after each out declined to small constant values characteristic of the soils. A sandy soil (Woburn) initially contained less exchangeable potassium than a soil with more clay (Sawyers), but after a few crops, ARK, % K in the grass and K uptakes per cut were larger from Woburn soil, showing that non-exchangeable potassium was being released faster than in the other soil.

scholarly journals Variation in pH Optima of Hydrolytic Enzyme Activities in Tropical Rain Forest Soils

2010 ◽  
Vol 76 (19) ◽  
pp. 6485-6493 ◽  
Author(s):  
Benjamin L. Turner
Keyword(s):  
Soil Ph ◽  
Forest Soils ◽  
Extracellular Enzymes ◽  
Hydrolytic Enzyme ◽  
Hydrolytic Enzymes ◽  
Acidic Ph ◽  
Acidic Soils ◽  
Fluorogenic Substrates ◽  
Ph Values ◽  
Optimum Ph

ABSTRACT Extracellular enzymes synthesized by soil microbes play a central role in the biogeochemical cycling of nutrients in the environment. The pH optima of eight hydrolytic enzymes involved in the cycles of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur, were assessed in a series of tropical forest soils of contrasting pH values from the Republic of Panama. Assays were conducted using 4-methylumbelliferone-linked fluorogenic substrates in modified universal buffer. Optimum pH values differed markedly among enzymes and soils. Enzymes were grouped into three classes based on their pH optima: (i) enzymes with acidic pH optima that were consistent among soils (cellobiohydrolase, β-xylanase, and arylsulfatase), (ii) enzymes with acidic pH optima that varied systematically with soil pH, with the most acidic pH optima in the most acidic soils (α-glucosidase, β-glucosidase, and N-acetyl-β-glucosaminidase), and (iii) enzymes with an optimum pH in either the acid range or the alkaline range depending on soil pH (phosphomonoesterase and phosphodiesterase). The optimum pH values of phosphomonoesterase were consistent among soils, being 4 to 5 for acid phosphomonoesterase and 10 to 11 for alkaline phosphomonoesterase. In contrast, the optimum pH for phosphodiesterase activity varied systematically with soil pH, with the most acidic pH optima (3.0) in the most acidic soils and the most alkaline pH optima (pH 10) in near-neutral soils. Arylsulfatase activity had a very acidic optimum pH in all soils (pH ≤3.0) irrespective of soil pH. The differences in pH optima may be linked to the origins of the enzymes and/or the degree of stabilization on solid surfaces. The results have important implications for the interpretation of hydrolytic enzyme assays using fluorogenic substrates.

scholarly journals Response of Corn to Acidity Factors in Eight Tropical Soils

1969 ◽  
Vol 58 (1) ◽  
pp. 59-77
Author(s):  
Fernando Abruña ◽  
Raúl Pérez-Escolar ◽  
José Vicente-Chandler ◽  
Robert W. Pearson ◽  
Servando Silva
Keyword(s):  
Soil Ph ◽  
Ammonium Acetate ◽  
Aluminum Content ◽  
Calcium Content ◽  
Tropical Soils ◽  
Base Saturation ◽  
Base Content ◽  
Ph Values ◽  
Exchangeable Aluminum ◽  
Close Relationship

The effect of soil acidity factors was determined on yields and foliar composition of corn grown on Ultisols and Oxisols typical of the Humid Tropics. Soil pH values increased from about 3.8 with a base saturation of around 20 percent to about pH 5 with a base saturation of around 70 percent based on cation exchange capacities determined with neutral ammonium acetate. The low pH values in relation to exchangeable base contents are explained by the presence of free salts. The level of aluminum saturation of the soil based on exchange capacities as determined with ammonium acetate decreased from 40-percent at about pH 3.9 to 0 at about pH 5.2. The Ultisols had a high content of exchangeable aluminum when acid but the more weathered Oxisols contained little aluminum. A very close relationship exists between exchangeable base (Ca + Mg) and aluminum values based on total exchange capacities determined either with ammonium acetate at pH 7.0 or by the sum of cations at a given pH permitting conversion of one value to another. Corn responded strongly to liming particularly on the Ultisols which had high exchangeable aluminum content when acid. Calcium content of the corn leaves increased with soil base content and with yields but foliar composition was not otherwise affected by liming. Corn yields increased with pH to about 5.2 at which pH level these soils contained essentially no exchangeable aluminum, with exchangeable base content as determined with ammonium acetate to about the 70-percent saturation level, and with decreasing exchangeable aluminum in the soil to essentially 0. Soil pH, exchangeable base, and exchangeable aluminum content were effective criteria for liming these soils.

scholarly journals TEORES E EXTRAÇÃO DE MACRONUTRIENTES PELAS FOLHAS DO ABACAXIZEIRO ‘VITÓRIA’ SOB ADUBAÇÃO POTÁSSICA E LÂMINAS DE IRRIGAÇÃO

Irriga ◽  
2017 ◽  
Vol 22 (2) ◽  
pp. 400-419
Author(s):  
Jefferson Bittencourt Venâncio ◽  
Wellinton Farias Araújo ◽  
Edvan Alves Chagas ◽  
Rafael Souza Melo
Keyword(s):  
Nutritional Status ◽  
Line Source ◽  
Leaf Tissue ◽  
Ananas Comosus ◽  
Foliar N ◽  
Foliar Concentrations ◽  
Irrigation Levels ◽  
E Mail ◽  
Pineapple Leaves ◽  
Sampling Times

TEORES E EXTRAÇÃO DE MACRONUTRIENTES PELAS FOLHAS DO ABACAXIZEIRO ‘VITÓRIA’ SOB ADUBAÇÃO POTÁSSICA E LÂMINAS DE IRRIGAÇÃO*  JEFFERSON BITTENCOURT VENÂCIO1; WELLINTON FARIAS ARAÚJO2; EDVAN ALVEZ CHAGAS3 E RAFAEL SOUZA MELO4  [1]Mestre em Agronomia, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Agronomia (POSAGRO), Departamento de Solos e Engenharia Agrícola, Universidade Federal de Roraima, Centro de Ciências Agrárias (UFRR/CCA), Rodovia BR 174, km 12, Monte Cristo, Boa Vista – RR, Campus Cauamé, Brasil. E-mail: [email protected];2Professor Dr. Associado, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Agronomia (POSAGRO), Departamento de Solos e Engenharia Agrícola, Universidade Federal de Roraima, Centro de Ciências Agrárias (UFRR/CCA), Rodovia BR 174, km 12, Monte Cristo, Boa Vista – RR, Brasil. E-mail: [email protected];3Pesquisador, Departamento de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento, Embrapa Roraima, Rodovia BR 174, km 8, Distrito Industrial, Boa Vista – RR, Brasil. E-mail: [email protected] Agropecuário, Departamento de Defesa Vegetal, Agência de Defesa Agropecuária do Estado de Roraima (ADERR), Rua Coronel Mota, 1.142, Centro, Boa Vista – RR, Brasil. E-mail: [email protected].*Extraído da dissertação de mestrado do primeiro autor  1      RESUMO As condições de cultivo podem afetar o estado nutricional e a extração de nutrientes pelas plantas. Assim, um experimento de campo foi realizado nas condições edafoclimáticas da savana de Roraima, objetivando avaliar o efeito de doses de K2O e lâminas de irrigação sobre o estado nutricional e a extração de macronutrientes pelas folhas do abacaxizeiro ‘Vitória’, em diferentes idades fisiológicas da planta. O delineamento experimental utilizado foi o em blocos inteiramente casualizados em arranjo de parcelas sub-subdivididas. As parcelas foram compostas pelas doses de potássio – K2O - 0, 10, 20 e 30 g planta-1, as subparcelas foram compostas pelas lâminas de irrigação em “line source” - 134,9; 267,5; 446,8; 558,3; e 655,2 mm, e as sub-subparcelas pelas épocas de amostragem - 120, 195, 270 e 345 dias após o plantio (DAP). O estado nutricional dos abacaxizeiros foi avaliado quanto aos teores foliares de N, P, K, Ca, Mg e as relações K:N, K:Ca e K:Mg nas folhas. Os teores foliares de K e P não sofreram alterações com as doses de K2O, mas foram afetados significativamente pelo menor regime hídrico (134,9 mm), principalmente nas épocas de maior déficit hídrico. Os teores foliares de N responderam positivamente ao incremento do K2O no solo, aos 120 DAP, e decresceram a partir de 270 DAP. A irrigação em nível mais elevado (655,2 mm) reduziu os teores foliares de N. Aos 345 DAP, os teores foliares de Ca e Mg reduziram significativamente com o aumento das doses de K2O, e apresentaram resposta diferencial aos níveis de irrigação adotados. A relação K:N no tecido foliar não foi afetada pela adubação, mas as relações K:Ca e K:Mg aumentaram significativamente. As lâminas de irrigação influenciaram essas relações de forma diferenciada sendo dependentes da época de amostragem. A ordem de extração de nutrientes nas folhas foi K>N>Ca>Mg>P e, aos 345 DAP, sendo 141,09 kg ha-1 de K (169,95 kg ha-1 de K2O); 76,97 kg ha-1 de N; 42,58 kg ha-1 de Ca; 25,70 kg ha-1 de Mg; e 9,48 kg ha-1 de P (21,72 kg ha-1 de P2O5). A relação de extração N:P:K:Ca:Mg foi de 1,00:0,12:1,83:0,55:0,33. Nas condições de savana de Roraima, considerando a produção de massa seca foliar (MSF), recomenda-se a dose de 16 g planta-1 de K2O e elevar a umidade do solo à capacidade de campo, quando a tensão de água no solo atingir a faixa de 25 a 50 kPa. Palavras-chave: Ananas comosus var. comosus, nutrição mineral, savana, Amazônia.  VENÂCIO, J.B; ARAÚJO, W.F.; CHAGAS, E.A.; MELO, R.S.LEVELS AND UPTAKE OF MACRONUTRIENT BY 'VITORIA' PINEAPPLE LEAVES UNDER POTASSIUM FERTILIZATION AND IRRIGATION 2      ABSTRACT The field experiment was conducted at conditions of the savanna of Roraima to evaluate the effect of potassium and irrigation levels on nutritional status and macronutrient uptake by leaves of pineapple 'Vitoria' in different physiological ages of the plant. The experimental design was a completely randomized block with split-split plot arrangement. The plots were composed by potassium – K2O - (0, 10, 20 and 30 g plant- 1), the subplots were composed by irrigation in "line source" - 134.9; 267.5; 446.8; 558.3; and 655.2 mm , and sub - subplots , the sampling times - 120, 195, 270 and 345 days after planting (DAP). The nutritional status of pineapple was evaluated for macronutrients (N, P, K, Ca, Mg and K:N ratio, K:Ca and K:Mg) in the leaves. The foliar concentrations of K and P were not altered by doses of potassium, but were significantly less affected by water regime (134.9 mm), especially in times of increased water deficit. The foliar N content responded positively to increase of potassium at 120 DAP and decreased from 270 DAP. The irrigation in its highest level (655.2 mm) reduced foliar N. At 345 DAP, the foliar Ca and Mg were significantly decreased with increasing doses of potassium and showed differential response to irrigation levels. The K:N ratio in leaf tissue was not affected by fertilization, but the relations K:Ca and K:Mg were significantly increased. Water depth influenced these relationships differently by the time of sampling. The order of extraction of nutrients in the leaves was K > N > Ca > Mg > P at 345 DAP , with 141.09 kg ha - 1 of K (169.95 kg ha-1 K2O); 76.97 kg ha-1 of N; 42.58 kg ha- 1 of Ca; 25.70 kg ha-1 of Mg; and 9.48 kg ha-1 of P (21.72 kg ha-1 P2O5). The extraction ratio was N:P:K:Ca:Mg 1.00:0.12:1.83:0.55:0.33, respectively. Keywords: Ananas comosus var. comosus; mineral nutrition; savanna; Amazônia.

scholarly journals Effect of Organic and Inorganic Fertilizers Amendments on Inflorescence and Flower Morphology and Yield of Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.)

CORD ◽  
2014 ◽  
Vol 30 (2) ◽  
pp. 9
Author(s):  
Abdul Hameed Solangi
Keyword(s):  
Agricultural Research ◽  
Cocos Nucifera ◽  
Block Design ◽  
Ammonium Phosphate ◽  
Flower Morphology ◽  
Npk Fertilizers ◽  
Shell Weight ◽  
Inorganic Fertilizers ◽  
Nut Production ◽  
Female Flowers

A study was conducted at the Plant Introduction Center (PIC), Southern Agricultural Research Center (SARC), Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC), Karachi for the effect of Organic {Neem Seed Powder (NSP) and Gliricidia sepium leaves (GSL)} and Inorganic {(Urea (N), Di-ammonium phosphate (P) and Murait of potash (K), (NPK)} Fertilizers Amendments on Inflorescence and flower Morphology and Yield of Coconut. The experiment consist of eight treatments namely; T1 (NPK + NSP + GSL), T2 (NPK+ NSP), T3 (NPK+ GSL), T4 (NSP + GSL), T5 (NPK), T6 (GSL), T7 (NSP), T8 control without treatments. The experiment was laid down as Complete Randomized Block Design replicated three times. The results demonstrated that the number of spikelets with female flowers were significantly high in T1 to T7 as compared to T8 treatment. The 1st spikelets with number of female flowers (48.97) were significantly (p<0.05) high in T1 as compared to T2, T3, T4 and T8.  In case of stalk length (38.05 cm) it was significantly (p<0.05) high in T1 as compared to T8. The findings of the study indicated that the number of nuts (99.33) and fruit weight (1490.77 g) were significantly (p<0.05) highest in T1 as compared to T3 to T8 and T2 to T8 treatments, respectively. The T1 treatment also showed better fruit length (25.75 cm), fruit breadth (42.97 cm), husk weight (448.66 g), shell weight (278.11 g), kernel weight (434.22 g) and nut water (188.77 ml) with significant differences in some of the treatments. The application of organic amended with inorganic fertilizers, enhanced the growth and nut production in nutrient deficient soils. It is therefore, recommended that treatment T1 {NPK+NSP+GSL)}/palm/year was enough to improve the morphological, inflorescence, flower morphology, high nut production, better income to coconut farmers, economical and beneficial for conservation of coconut genetic resources in coastal area of Pakistan.

scholarly journals UTILIZATION OF MINERAL RAW MATERIALS (INDUSTRIAL BYPRODUCTS) AND THEIR MIXTURES AS SOIL PH AMENDMENTS

2004 ◽  
Vol 36 (1) ◽  
pp. 43
Author(s):  
Κ. Σικαλίδης ◽  
Ν. Καραγιαννίδης
Keyword(s):  
Soil Ph ◽  
Raw Materials ◽  
Soil Amendments ◽  
Alkaline Soils ◽  
Alkaline Ph ◽  
Industrial Activities ◽  
Ph Values ◽  
Phosphorus Containing ◽  
Industrial Byproducts ◽  
By Products

Limestone, dolomitic stone, huntite, active magnesia and their mixtures as well as phosphorus containing gypsum, all by-products of various industrial activities, were investigated as soil amendments for acidic (pH 4.2 - 4.5) soils from Drama area, N. Greece and alkaline (pH 8.1 - 8.2) soils from Thermi area, N. Greece. Additions of 500 and 350 kg of the industrial by-products or their various mixtures tested, per 1000 sq.meters, improve the soil pH from the strong acidic area to 6.5- 7.5. Active magnesia increases the pH values above 8. Additions of 200 kg of mixtures of limestone and active magnesia per 1000 sq.meters, found to be able to increase the soil pH from 4.2 to around 6.5. These results were obtained within ten days from the day of application. Phosphorous containing gypsum, by-product of phosphoric fertilizers industry, was found to be able to decrease the soil pH from 8.1-8.2 down to 7.1. The results of this work suggest the possible use of the studied by-products as soil amendments for acidic and alkaline soils, respectively.

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