Web-based Food Behaviour Questionnaire: Validation with Grades Six to Eight Students

2009 ◽  
Vol 70 (4) ◽  
pp. 172-178 ◽  
Author(s):  
Rhona M. Hanning ◽  
Dawna Royall ◽  
Jenn E. Toews ◽  
Lindsay Blashill ◽  
Jessica Wegener ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Dietary Assessment ◽  
Intraclass Correlation ◽  
Correlation Coefficients ◽  
Food Group ◽  
Nutrient Intakes ◽  
Web Based ◽  
Qualitative Feedback ◽  
Diet Recall ◽  
Ethnic Students ◽  
The Web

Purpose: The web-based Food Behaviour Questionnaire (FBQ) includes a 24-hour diet recall, a food frequency questionnaire, and questions addressing knowledge, attitudes, intentions, and food-related behaviours. The survey has been revised since it was developed and initially validated. The current study was designed to obtain qualitative feedback and to validate the FBQ diet recall. Methods: “Think aloud” techniques were used in cognitive interviews with dietitian experts (n=11) and grade six students (n=21).Multi-ethnic students (n=201) in grades six to eight at urban southern Ontario schools completed the FBQ and, subsequently, one-on-one diet recall interviews with trained dietitians. Food group and nutrient intakes were compared. Results: Users provided positive feedback on the FBQ. Suggestions included adding more foods, more photos for portion estimation, and online student feedback. Energy and nutrient intakes were positively correlated between FBQ and dietitian interviews, overall and by gender and grade (all p<0.001). Intraclass correlation coefficients were ≥0.5 for energy and macronutrients, although the web-based survey underestimated energy (-10.5%) and carbohydrate (-15.6%) intakes (p<0.05). Under-estimation of rice and pasta portions on the web accounted for 50% of this discrepancy. Conclusions: The FBQ is valid, relative to 24-hour recall interviews, for dietary assessment in diverse populations of Ontario children in grades six to eight.

scholarly journals Interformat Reliability of Web-Based Parent-Rated Questionnaires for Assessing Neurodevelopmental Disorders Among Preschoolers: Cross-sectional Community Study

10.2196/20172 ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 4 (1) ◽  
pp. e20172
Author(s):  
Masanori Tanaka ◽  
Manabu Saito ◽  
Michio Takahashi ◽  
Masaki Adachi ◽  
Kazuhiko Nakamura
Keyword(s):  
Neurodevelopmental Disorders ◽  
Rating Scale ◽  
Developmental Coordination Disorder ◽  
Intraclass Correlation ◽  
Correlation Coefficients ◽  
Autism Spectrum ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Web Based ◽  
Developmental Health ◽  
The Web

Background Early detection and intervention for neurodevelopmental disorders are effective. Several types of paper questionnaires have been developed to assess these conditions in early childhood; however, the psychometric equivalence between the web-based and the paper versions of these questionnaires is unknown. Objective This study examined the interformat reliability of the web-based parent-rated version of the Autism Spectrum Screening Questionnaire (ASSQ), Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Rating Scale (ADHD-RS), Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire 2007 (DCDQ), and Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) among Japanese preschoolers in a community developmental health check-up setting. Methods A set of paper-based questionnaires were distributed for voluntary completion to parents of children aged 5 years. The package of the paper format questionnaires included the ASSQ, ADHD-RS, DCDQ, parent-reported SDQ (P-SDQ), and several additional demographic questions. Responses were received from 508 parents of children who agreed to participate in the study. After 3 months, 300 parents, who were among the initial responders, were randomly selected and asked to complete the web-based versions of these questionnaires. A total of 140 parents replied to the web-based format and were included as a final sample in this study. Results We obtained the McDonald ω coefficients for both the web-based and paper formats of the ASSQ (web-based: ω=.90; paper: ω=.86), ADHD-RS total and subscales (web-based: ω=.88-.94; paper: ω=.87-.93), DCDQ total and subscales (web-based: ω=.82-.94; paper: ω=.74-.92), and P-SDQ total and subscales (web-based: ω=.55-.81; paper: ω=.52-.80). The intraclass correlation coefficients between the web-based and paper formats were all significant at the 99.9% confidence level: ASSQ (r=0.66, P<.001); ADHD-RS total and subscales (r=0.66-0.74, P<.001); DCDQ total and subscales (r=0.66-0.71, P<.001); P-SDQ Total Difficulties and subscales (r=0.55-0.73, P<.001). There were no significant differences between the web-based and paper formats for total mean score of the ASSQ (P=.76), total (P=.12) and subscale (P=.11-.47) mean scores of DCDQ, and the P-SDQ Total Difficulties mean score (P=.20) and mean subscale scores (P=.28-.79). Although significant differences were found between the web-based and paper formats for mean ADHD-RS scores (total: t132=2.83, P=.005; Inattention subscale: t133=2.15, P=.03; Hyperactivity/Impulsivity subscale: t133=3.21, P=.002), the effect sizes were small (Cohen d=0.18-0.22). Conclusions These results suggest that the web-based versions of the ASSQ, ADHD-RS, DCDQ, and P-SDQ were equivalent, with the same level of internal consistency and intrarater reliability as the paper versions, indicating the applicability of the web-based versions of these questionnaires for assessing neurodevelopmental disorders.

scholarly journals Comparison of Self-Administered Web-Based and Interviewer Printed Food Frequency Questionnaires for Dietary Assessment in Italian Adolescents

2019 ◽  
Vol 16 (11) ◽  
pp. 1949 ◽  
Author(s):  
Martina Barchitta ◽  
Andrea Maugeri ◽  
Ottavia Agrifoglio ◽  
Giuliana Favara ◽  
Claudia La Mastra ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Fatty Acids ◽  
Correlation Coefficients ◽  
Weighted Kappa ◽  
Rank Test ◽  
Nutrient Intakes ◽  
Web Based ◽  
Food Frequency ◽  
Wilcoxon Rank Test ◽  
Italian Adolescents ◽  
The Web

Innovative tools for assessing food and nutrient intakes in adolescence are essential to uncover the long-term effects of diet on chronic diseases. Here, we developed and compared a web-based self-administered food frequency questionnaire (web-FFQ) with a traditional interviewer printed FFQ (print-FFQ) among 174 Italian adolescents (aged 15–18 years). To assess the reliability of the web-FFQ compared with the print-FFQ, we used Spearman’s rank correlation coefficients, Wilcoxon rank test, quartile misclassification analysis, Cohen’s weighted kappa and the Bland–Altman method. Correlation coefficients ranged from 0.14 (i.e., pizza) to 0.67 (i.e., raw vegetables) for foods, and from 0.45 (i.e., monounsaturated fatty acids, MUFA) to 0.62 (i.e., zinc) for nutrients. Results from the Wilcoxon rank test showed that food and nutrient intakes were comparable between two FFQs, except for nuts, shellfish, fruit juices and MUFA. Adolescents classified into the same or adjacent quartiles ranged from 68.2% (i.e., tea) to 89.1% (i.e., raw vegetables and dipping sauces) for foods, and from 77.2% (i.e., vitamin C) to 87.2% (i.e., folate and calcium) for nutrients. Except for pizza, the weighted kappa indicated moderate to substantial agreement for other foods and nutrients. Finally, we demonstrated that the web-FFQ significantly overestimated shellfish and fruit juice intakes, while it underestimated nuts, canned fish, olive oil, total energy intake, fatty acids and calcium. The limits of agreement analysis indicated moderate to wide individual differences for all groups. In conclusion, our self-administered web-FFQ represents an easy, suitable and cost-effective tool for assessing food and nutrient intakes in adolescents. However, the wide individual differences in level of agreement suggest that additional refinements and calibrations are necessary to investigate the effects of absolute nutrient intakes at the individual level.

scholarly journals Interformat Reliability of Web-Based Parent-Rated Questionnaires Assessing for Neurodevelopmental Disorders among Preschoolers: A Community Developmental Health Check-up Setting Study (Preprint)

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Masanori Tanaka ◽  
Manabu Saito ◽  
Michio Takahashi ◽  
Masaki Adachi ◽  
Kazuhiko Nakamura
Keyword(s):  
Neurodevelopmental Disorders ◽  
Rating Scale ◽  
Developmental Coordination Disorder ◽  
Intraclass Correlation ◽  
Correlation Coefficients ◽  
Autism Spectrum ◽  
Health Check ◽  
Web Based ◽  
Developmental Health ◽  
The Web

BACKGROUND Early detection and intervention for neurodevelopmental disorders are effective. Several paper types of questionnaires have been developed to assess these conditions in early childhood. However, the psychometric equivalence between the web and the paper versions of these questionnaires is unknown. OBJECTIVE This study examined the interformat reliability of the web-based parent-rated version of the Autism Spectrum Screening Questionnaire (ASSQ), Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Rating Scale (ADHD-RS), Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire’07 (DCDQ), and Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) among Japanese preschoolers in a community developmental health check-up setting. METHODS A set of paper-based questionnaires were distributed for voluntary completion to parents of children aged 5 years. The package of the paper form questionnaires included the ASSQ, ADHD-RS, DCDQ, Parent-reported SDQ (P-SDQ), and several additional demographic questions. Responses were received from 508 parents of children who agreed to participate in the study. After 3 months, 300 parents of children, who were among the initial responders, were randomly selected and asked to complete the web-based versions of these questionnaires voluntarily. A total of 140 parents of children replied to the web form and were included as a final sample in this study. RESULTS We obtained Cronbach’s alphas for both the web and paper forms of the ASSQ (web=.88, paper=.84), ADHD-RS total and subscales (web=.87-.94, paper=.86-.92), DCDQ total and subscales (web=.81-.93, paper=.74-.91), and P-SDQ Total Difficulties and subscales (web=.52-.80, paper=.51-.79). The intraclass correlation coefficients between the web and paper forms of each questionnaire were all significant at the 99.9% confidence level. (ASSQ: r=.66; ADHD-RS total and subscales: r=.66-74; DCDQ total and subscales: r=.66-.71; P-SDQ Total Difficulties and subscales: r=.55-.73). There were no significant differences between the web and paper forms for the total mean score of the ASSQ, total and subscale mean scores of DCDQ, and the P-SDQ Total Difficulties mean score and mean subscale scores. While significant differences were found between the web and paper forms for the mean scores on the ADHD-RS (Total: t132=2.83, P=.005; Inattention: t133=2.15, P=.03; Hyperactivity/Impulsivity: t133=3.21, P=.002), the effect sizes were small (Cohen d=.18-.22). CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that the web versions of the ASSQ, ADHD-RS, DCDQ, and P-SDQ had the same level of internal consistency, intra-rater reliability, and equality as the paper versions. These results indicate the web applicability of these questionnaires for assessing neurodevelopmental disorders.

scholarly journals Relative Validity and Reproducibility of a New 44-Item Diet and Food Frequency Questionnaire Among Adults: Online Assessment (Preprint)

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Aurélie Affret ◽  
Douae El Fatouhi ◽  
Courtney Dow ◽  
Emmanuelle Correia ◽  
Marie-Christine Boutron-Ruault ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Large Scale ◽  
Intraclass Correlation ◽  
Daily Intake ◽  
Correlation Coefficients ◽  
Food Group ◽  
Dietary Intakes ◽  
Nutrient Intakes ◽  
Food Frequency ◽  
Relative Validity ◽  
Reproducibility Study

BACKGROUND Dietary questionnaires currently available which can assess the habitual diet are timely, costly, or not adapted well to the modern diet; thus, there is a need for a shorter food frequency e-Questionnaire (FFeQ) adapted to Western diets, in order to properly estimate energy and macronutrient intakes or rank individuals according to food and nutrient intakes. OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to evaluate the relative validity and reproducibility of a 30-minute and 44-item FFeQ in a sample of adults obtained from the general population. METHODS A sample of French adults was recruited through social media and an advertising campaign. A total of 223 volunteers completed the FFeQ twice at one-year intervals and were included in the reproducibility study. During that interval, 92 participants completed three-to-six 24-hour recalls and were included in the validity study. Nutrient and dietary intakes were computed for all validity and reproducibility participants. The level of agreement between the two methods was evaluated for nutrient and food group intakes using classification into quintiles of daily intake, correlation coefficients and Bland-Altman plots. RESULTS For relative validity, correlation coefficients ranged from 0.09 to 0.88 (unadjusted correlation coefficients, median: 0.48) and 0.02 to 0.68 (deattenuated and energy adjusted correlation coefficients, median: 0.50) for food group and nutrient intakes, respectively. The median proportion of subjects classified into the same or adjacent quintile was 73% and 66% for food and nutrient intakes, respectively. Bland-Altman plots showed good agreement across the range of intakes. Regarding reproducibility, intraclass correlation coefficients ranged from 0.33 to 0.72 (median: 0.60) and 0.55 to 0.73 (median: 0.64), for food and nutrient intakes, respectively. CONCLUSIONS The FFeQ showed acceptable validity and reproducibility in a sample of adults based on their food and nutrient intakes. The FFeQ is a promising and low-cost tool that can be used in large-scale online epidemiological studies or clinical routines and could be integrated into evidence-based smartphone apps for assessing diet components.

scholarly journals Feasibility of innovative dietary assessment in epidemiological studies using the approach of combining different assessment instruments

2011 ◽  
Vol 14 (6) ◽  
pp. 1055-1063 ◽  
Author(s):  
Anne-Kathrin Illner ◽  
Ulrich Harttig ◽  
Gianluca Tognon ◽  
Domenico Palli ◽  
Simonetta Salvini ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Dietary Assessment ◽  
Participation Rate ◽  
Epidemiological Studies ◽  
Assessment Instruments ◽  
Web Based ◽  
Individual Level ◽  
Combined Application ◽  
San Sebastian ◽  
Paper Format ◽  
The Web

AbstractObjectiveTo assess the feasibility of combining short-term and long-term dietary assessment instruments as new concept for improving usual dietary intake assessment on the individual level.DesignFeasibility study of completing three 24 h dietary recalls (24-HDR) and a self-administered food propensity questionnaire (FPQ). The 24-HDR was conducted by monthly telephone interviews, using EPIC-SOFT software. The FPQ was completely standardized across cohorts and offered either as a web-based tool or in paper format.SettingRandom sample derived from five ongoing European cohort studies (EPIC-San Sebastian, EPIC-Florence, EPIC-Potsdam, Estonia Genome Center (EGC) and Norwegian Women and Cancer study (NOWAC)).SubjectsA total of 400 participants.ResultsOverall, the total participation rate for the present study was 65·3 % (n 261). On average, completion of the 24-HDR was highest for the first 24-HDR (63·0 %) and decreased slightly for the second (60·3 %) and third 24-HDR (56·3 %). The proportions of selecting the web-based FPQ varied among the study centres, with the highest in EGC (92·9 %) and NOWAC (70·0 %) and the lowest in EPIC-San Sebastian (25·5 %) and EPIC-Potsdam (33·9 %). Web users rarely requested support and were younger and more highly educated than those who completed the paper format.ConclusionsThe present study supports the feasibility of a combined application of three 24-HDR and an FPQ in culturally different populations. The varying acceptance of the web-based instrument across populations requires a flexible application of assessment instruments.

scholarly journals Validation and reproducibility of an FFQ for use among adults in Botswana

2012 ◽  
Vol 16 (11) ◽  
pp. 1995-2004 ◽  
Author(s):  
Maria D Jackson ◽  
Boitumelo S Motswagole ◽  
Lemogang D Kwape ◽  
Rosemary I Kobue-Lekalake ◽  
Tidimalo B Rakgantswana ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Vitamin E ◽  
Correlation Coefficients ◽  
Food Group ◽  
Leafy Vegetables ◽  
Spearman Correlation ◽  
Food Groups ◽  
Nutrient Intakes ◽  
Relative Validity ◽  
Dark Green ◽  
Β Carotene

AbstractObjectiveTo evaluate the validity and reproducibility of a 122-item interviewer-administered quantitative FFQ developed to determine food and nutrient intakes of adults in Botswana.DesignRelative validity of the FFQ was evaluated by comparing nutrient and food group intakes against four non-consecutive 24 h recalls administered over 12 months. The FFQ was repeated after 1 year to assess reproducibility.SettingKanye, Botswana.SubjectsSeventy-nine adults aged 18–75 years.ResultsSpearman correlation coefficients for the validity of energy-adjusted nutrients ranged from 0·42 (carbohydrate) to 0·49 (protein) for macronutrients and from 0·23 (Fe) to 0·44 (PUFA) for micronutrients. Exact agreement of quartile distribution for nutrients between the FFQ and recalls ranged from 27 % to 72 %. Weighted kappa values were lowest for retinol (0·13), Fe (0·22) and β-carotene (0·25) and ranged from 0·33 (SFA) to 0·59 (folate) for other nutrients (energy, carbohydrate, protein, fat, Ca and vitamin E). Spearman correlation coefficients between the recalls and FFQ for food groups ranged from 0·18 (dark green leafy and yellow vegetables) to 0·58 (poultry). Reproducibility correlation coefficients (energy-adjusted) varied between 0·39 for retinol and 0·66 for vitamin E, with most values falling between 0·50 and 0·60.ConclusionsThe FFQ had good relative validity for estimating habitual food group and nutrient intakes, but was poor for some micronutrients (Fe, retinol and β-carotene) and foods (fruits and dark green leafy vegetables).

scholarly journals Validation of the web-based self-administered 24-h dietary recall myfood24-Germany: comparison with a weighed dietary record and biomarkers

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Stefanie A. J. Koch ◽  
Johanna Conrad ◽  
Janet E. Cade ◽  
Leonie Weinhold ◽  
Ute Alexy ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Dietary Assessment ◽  
Method Comparison ◽  
Correlation Coefficients ◽  
Weighted Kappa ◽  
Web Based ◽  
Dietary Recall ◽  
Potassium Intake ◽  
Dietary Assessment Methods ◽  
Dietary Record ◽  
Significant Difference

Abstract Purpose We aimed to validate myfood24-Germany, a web-based 24-h dietary recall (24HDR), by comparing its performance with a weighed dietary record (WDR) and biomarkers. Methods 97 adults (77% female) completed a 3-day WDR with a 24-h urine collection on day 3, followed by at least one 24HDR with myfood24-Germany (corresponding to day 3 of the WDR). Intake of energy and 32 nutrients assessed by myfood24-Germany and the WDR for the same day were compared (method comparison). Intakes of protein and potassium assessed by myfood24-Germany/WDR were compared with intake estimated from urinary biomarkers for protein and potassium (biomarker comparison). Results In the method comparison, significant correlations were found for energy and all tested nutrients (range 0.45–0.87). There was no significant difference between both methods in the assessed mean energy and macronutrient intake. However, myfood24-Germany underestimated mean intake of 15 nutrients. In the biomarker comparison, protein intake reported by myfood24-Germany/WDR was on average 10%/8% lower than estimated by biomarker. There was no significant difference in mean potassium intake assessed by myfood24-Germany/WDR and biomarker. However, a shared bias in the assessment of potassium intake was observed for both instruments. Concordance correlation coefficients (pc) and weighted Kappa coefficients (κ) confirmed good agreement with the biomarker estimates for myfood24-Germany/WDR in case of protein (pc = 0.58/0.66, κ = 0.51/0.53) and moderate agreement in case of potassium (pc = 0.44/0.51; κ = 0.30/0.33). Conclusion Our results suggest that myfood24-Germany is of comparable validity to traditional dietary assessment methods.

scholarly journals Relative validity of an FFQ for pre-school children in the mother–child ‘Rhea’ birth cohort in Crete, Greece

2014 ◽  
Vol 18 (3) ◽  
pp. 421-427 ◽  
Author(s):  
Vasiliki Leventakou ◽  
Vaggelis Georgiou ◽  
Leda Chatzi ◽  
Katerina Sarri
Keyword(s):  
Birth Cohort ◽  
School Children ◽  
Correlation Coefficients ◽  
Weighted Kappa ◽  
Food Group ◽  
Kappa Statistics ◽  
Nutrient Intakes ◽  
Relative Validity ◽  
Food Records ◽  
The Mean

AbstractObjectiveTo examine the relative validity of an FFQ based on parental report for pre-school children in the mother–child ‘Rhea’ birth cohort.DesignThe children’s mothers completed an FFQ that referred to the children’s dietary intake for the previous year by telephone interview. Mothers completed also three food records, two on weekdays and one on a weekend day. Spearman correlation coefficients were calculated for the energy-adjusted values. Weighted kappa statistics (κw) and the Bland–Altman technique were used to test the degree of agreement between the two dietary methods.SettingHeraklion, Crete, Greece, 2011–2012.SubjectsA total of ninety-nine mothers (corresponding to fifty-one boys and forty-eight girls) participated in the validation study.ResultsThe mean and median values of all food group and nutrient intakes did not differ significantly between the two dietary methods. Overall, fair agreement was observed between the FFQ and the food records for ranking participants based on their intake, with κw ranging from 0·21 to 0·40 for most foods and nutrients. On average, 88 % of participants were classified into the same or adjacent tertiles for nutrient and food group intakes by both dietary methods. The degree of agreement was also confirmed by the visual examination of the Bland–Altman plots.ConclusionsThe study indicates that the Rhea 4 years FFQ is a relatively accurate tool for assessing habitual food group and nutrient intakes among pre-school children in Crete, Greece.

scholarly journals Reproducibility and Validity of a Food Frequency Questionnaire for Dietary Assessment in Adolescents in a Self-Reported Way

Nutrients ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 12 (7) ◽  
pp. 2081
Author(s):  
Leyre Notario-Barandiaran ◽  
Carmen Freire ◽  
Manuela García-de-la-Hera ◽  
Laura Mª Compañ-Gabucio ◽  
Laura Torres-Collado ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Food Frequency Questionnaire ◽  
Vegetable Intake ◽  
Pearson Correlation ◽  
Dietary Assessment ◽  
Correlation Coefficients ◽  
Food Group ◽  
Birth Cohort Study ◽  
Food Groups ◽  
Food Frequency ◽  
Male Adolescents

Tools to assess diet in a reliable and efficient way are needed, particularly in children and adolescents. In this study, we assess the reproducibility and validity of a semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) among adolescents in Spain. We analyzed data of 51 male adolescents aged 15–17 years from a prospective birth cohort study. Participants answered the FFQ twice in a self-administered way over a 12-month period. Reproducibility was assessed by comparing nutrient and food intakes from the FFQs, and validity by comparing nutrient intakes from the average of two FFQs and the average of two 24-Hour Dietary Recalls obtained in the period. Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated. The average of reproducibility correlation coefficients for food group intakes was 0.33, with the highest correlation for vegetable intake (r = 0.81); and the average for nutrient intake was 0.32, with the highest coefficients for α- and β-carotene (r = 0.65). Validity correlation coefficients ranged from 0.07 for carbohydrates to 0.53 for dietary fiber. The average of the validity correlation coefficients was r = 0.32. This study suggests that our FFQ may be a useful tool for assessing dietary intake of most nutrient and food groups among Spanish male adolescents in a self-administered way, despite reproducibility and, particularly validity, being low for some nutrients and food groups.

scholarly journals Applying a meal coding system to 16-d weighed dietary record data in the Japanese context: towards the development of simple meal-based dietary assessment tools

2018 ◽  
Vol 7 ◽  
Author(s):  
Kentaro Murakami ◽  
M. Barbara E. Livingstone ◽  
Satoshi Sasaki ◽  
Naoko Hirota ◽  
Akiko Notsu ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Dietary Intake ◽  
Dietary Assessment ◽  
Food Group ◽  
Scientific Basis ◽  
Food Composition ◽  
Assessment Tools ◽  
Coding System ◽  
Nutrient Intakes ◽  
Dietary Record ◽  
Eating Occasions

AbstractData on the combination of foods consumed simultaneously at specific eating occasions are scarce, primarily due to a lack of assessment tools. We applied a recently developed meal coding system to multiple-day dietary intake data for assessing its ability to estimate food and nutrient intakes and characterise meal-based dietary patterns in the Japanese context. A total of 242 Japanese adults completed sixteen non-consecutive-day weighed dietary records, including 14 734 eating occasions (3788 breakfasts, 3823 lunches, 3856 dinners and 3267 snacks). Common food group combinations were identified by meal type to identify a range of generic meals. Dietary intake was calculated on the basis of not only the standard food composition database but also the substituted generic meal database. In total, eighty generic meals (twenty-three breakfasts, twenty-one lunches, twenty-four dinners and twelve snacks) were identified. The Spearman correlation coefficients between food group intakes calculated based on the standard food composition database and the substituted generic meal database ranged from 0·26 to 0·85 (median 0·69). The corresponding correlations for nutrient intakes ranged from 0·17 to 0·82 (median 0·61). A total of eleven meal patterns were established using principal components analysis, and these accounted for 39·1 % of total meal variance. Considerable variation in patterns was seen in meal type inclusion and choice of staple foods (bread, rice and noodles) and drinks, and also in meal constituents. In conclusion, this study demonstrated the usefulness of a meal coding system for assessing habitual diet, providing a scientific basis towards the development of simple meal-based dietary assessment tools.

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