scholarly journals Problem Solving in Animals: Proposal for an Ontogenetic Perspective

Animals ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (3) ◽  
pp. 866
Author(s):  
Misha K. Rowell ◽  
Neville Pillay ◽  
Tasmin L. Rymer
Keyword(s):  
Problem Solving ◽  
Environmental Factors ◽  
Cognitive Processes ◽  
Current Literature ◽  
Experimental Studies ◽  
Trial And Error ◽  
Full Understanding ◽  
Comprehensive Review ◽  
Ultimate Outcome ◽  
Error Learning

Problem solving, the act of overcoming an obstacle to obtain an incentive, has been studied in a wide variety of taxa, and is often based on simple strategies such as trial-and-error learning, instead of higher-order cognitive processes, such as insight. There are large variations in problem solving abilities between species, populations and individuals, and this variation could arise due to differences in development, and other intrinsic (genetic, neuroendocrine and aging) and extrinsic (environmental) factors. However, experimental studies investigating the ontogeny of problem solving are lacking. Here, we provide a comprehensive review of problem solving from an ontogenetic perspective. The focus is to highlight aspects of problem solving that have been overlooked in the current literature, and highlight why developmental influences of problem-solving ability are particularly important avenues for future investigation. We argue that the ultimate outcome of solving a problem is underpinned by interacting cognitive, physiological and behavioural components, all of which are affected by ontogenetic factors. We emphasise that, due to the large number of confounding ontogenetic influences, an individual-centric approach is important for a full understanding of the development of problem solving.

scholarly journals Deterministic response strategies in trial-and-error learning

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Holger Mohr ◽  
Katharina Zwosta ◽  
Dimitrije Markovic ◽  
Sebastian Bitzer ◽  
Uta Wolfensteller ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Learning Strategies ◽  
Cognitive Processes ◽  
Learning Model ◽  
Trial And Error ◽  
Q Learning ◽  
Learning Efficiency ◽  
Stimulus Response ◽  
Initial Learning ◽  
Error Learning ◽  
High Level

Trial-and-error learning is a universal strategy for establishing which actions are beneficial or harmful in new environments. However, learning stimulus-response associations solely via trial-and-error is often suboptimal, as in many settings dependencies among stimuli and responses can be exploited to increase learning efficiency. Previous studies have shown that in settings featuring such dependencies, humans typically engage high-level cognitive processes and employ advanced learning strategies to improve their learning efficiency. Here we analyze in detail the initial learning phase of a sample of human subjects (N = 85) performing a trial-and-error learning task with deterministic feedback and hidden stimulus-response dependencies. Using computational modeling, we find that the standard Q-learning model cannot sufficiently explain human learning strategies in this setting. Instead, newly introduced deterministic response models, which are theoretically optimal and transform stimulus sequences unambiguously into response sequences, provide the best explanation for 50.6% of the subjects. Most of the remaining subjects either show a tendency towards generic optimal learning (21.2%) or at least partially exploit stimulus-response dependencies (22.3%), while a few subjects (5.9%) show no clear preference for any of the employed models. After the initial learning phase, asymptotic learning performance during the subsequent practice phase is best explained by the standard Q-learning model. Our results show that human learning strategies in trial-and-error learning go beyond merely associating stimuli and responses via incremental reinforcement. Specifically during initial learning, high-level cognitive processes support sophisticated learning strategies that increase learning efficiency while keeping memory demands and computational efforts bounded. The good asymptotic fit of the Q-learning model indicates that these cognitive processes are successively replaced by the formation of stimulus-response associations over the course of learning.

scholarly journals The development of flight behaviours in birds

2020 ◽  
Vol 287 (1929) ◽  
pp. 20200668
Author(s):  
Geoffrey Ruaux ◽  
Sophie Lumineau ◽  
Emmanuel de Margerie
Keyword(s):  
Developmental Stages ◽  
Experimental Studies ◽  
Bird Species ◽  
Early Period ◽  
Breeding Birds ◽  
Practice Trial ◽  
Trial And Error ◽  
Specific Question ◽  
The Core ◽  
Error Learning

Flight is a unique adaptation at the core of many behaviours in most bird species, whether it be foraging, migration or breeding. Birds have developed a wide diversity of flight modes (e.g. flapping, gliding, soaring, hovering) which involves very specialized behaviours. A key issue when studying flight behaviours is to understand how they develop through all the ontogenetic stages of birds, from the embryo to the flying adult. This question typically involves classical debates on animal behaviour about the importance of maturation and experience. Here, we review the literature available on the development of flight behaviours in birds. First, we focus on the early period when young birds are not yet capable of flight. We discuss examples and show how endogenous processes (e.g. wing flapping in the nest, flight development timing) and environmental factors (e.g. maternal stress, nutritional stress) can influence the development of flight behaviours. Then, we review several examples showing the different processes involved in the development of flight in flight-capable juveniles (e.g. practice, trial and error learning, social learning). Despite the lack of experimental studies investigating this specific question at different developmental stages, we show that several patterns can be identified, and we anticipate that the development of new tracking techniques will allow us to study this question more thoroughly in more bird species.

scholarly journals Coordination over a unique medium of exchange under information scarcity

2019 ◽  
Vol 5 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Aurélien Nioche ◽  
Basile Garcia ◽  
Germain Lefebvre ◽  
Thomas Boraud ◽  
Nicolas P. Rougier ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Rational Expectations ◽  
Experimental Studies ◽  
Artificial Agents ◽  
Trial And Error ◽  
Commodity Money ◽  
State Of The Economy ◽  
Human Experiments ◽  
Multi Agent ◽  
The Mean ◽  
Error Learning

AbstractSeveral micro-founded macroeconomic models with rational expectations address the issue of money emergence, by characterizing it as a coordination game. These models have in common the use of agents who dispose of perfect or near-perfect information on the global state of the economy and who display full-fledged computational abilities. Several experimental studies have shown that a simple trial-and-error learning process could constitute an explanation for how agents coordinate on a single mean of exchange. However, these studies provide subjects with full information regarding the state of the economy while restricting the number of goods in circulation to three. In this study, by the mean of multi-agent simulations and human experiments, we test the hypothesis according to which coordination over a unique medium of exchange is possible in the context of information scarcity. In our experimental design, subjects and artificial agents are only aware of the outcome of their own decisions. We provide results for economies with 3 and 4 goods to evaluate to which extent it is possible to generalize results obtained with 3 goods to $$n$$n goods. Our findings show that in an economy à la Iwai, commodity money can emerge under drastic information restrictions with three goods in circulation, but generalization to four or more goods is not guaranteed.

scholarly journals Cognitive flexibility: exploring students’ problem-solving in elementary school mathematics learning

2020 ◽  
Vol 6 (1) ◽  
pp. 59-70
Author(s):  
Sri Rahayuningsih ◽  
Sirajuddin Sirajuddin ◽  
Nasrun Nasrun
Keyword(s):  
Problem Solving ◽  
Cognitive Flexibility ◽  
Cognitive Processes ◽  
Mathematics Learning ◽  
Sampling Technique ◽  
Expert Advice ◽  
Trial And Error ◽  
Research Subjects ◽  
Mathematical Problems ◽  
Math Problems

In classroom learning, students need mathematical cognitive flexibility to be able to solve mathematical problems with the various ideas they express. To solve the problems, they must be able to grasp the problem, see it from various points of view, and should not be rigid thinking with one solving method.  In fact, the students still lack the ability to think flexibly in solving math problems. This exploration is necessary to determine how to encourage the students’ creative problem-solving. The purposive sampling technique is used to select two out of 150 of 4th Grade students who have taken an initial test to measure their creative abilities. Problem-solving worksheet, think-aloud records, and interviews are used as data collection instruments. Then, the data were analyzed using a qualitative descriptive approach. The research instrument is validated by two professors of mathematics. Through a series of revisions based on expert advice, the validity results are said to be feasible for use. To check for reliability, field tests are tested on 10 students who meet the criteria as research subjects. Analysis results indicate that cognitive abilities involve cognitive processes in the form of the ability to assess process by looking for patterns of numbers, mentally compute, estimate, and assess the rationality or reasonableness of calculation results. Other findings on students' cognitive processes in solving math problems include looking for number patterns, carrying out trial-and-error (also called guess-and-check), and drawing diagrams. Students with cognitive flexibility tend to use trial-and-error when solving mathematical problems.

Amruthapala (Decalepis arayalpathra (J. Joseph and V. Chandras.) Venter): A Comprehensive Review on Diversity, Therapeutic Uses, and Valorization of Bioactive Constituents

2019 ◽  
Vol 20 (5) ◽  
pp. 376-389 ◽  
Author(s):  
Sonali Mishra ◽  
Nupur Srivastava ◽  
Velusamy Sundaresan ◽  
Karuna Shanker
Keyword(s):  
Secondary Metabolite ◽  
Current Knowledge ◽  
Experimental Studies ◽  
Critical Discussion ◽  
Future Research ◽  
Bioactive Constituents ◽  
Medicinal Uses ◽  
Comprehensive Review ◽  
Therapeutic Uses ◽  
Decalepis Arayalpathra

Background: Decalepis arayalpathra (J. Joseph and V. Chandras.) Venter is used primarily for nutrition besides its therapeutic values. Traditional preparations/formulations from its tuber are used as a vitalizer and blood purifier drink. The folklore medicinal uses cover inflammation, cough, wound healing, antipyretic, and digestive system management. A comprehensive review of the current understanding of the plant is required due to emerging concerns over its safety and efficacy. Objective: The systematic collection of the authentic information from different sources with the critical discussion is summarised in order to address various issues related to botanical identity, therapeutic medicine, nutritional usage, phytochemical, and pharmacological potentials of the D. arayalpathra. Current use of traditional systems of medicine can be used to expand future research opportunities. Materials and Methods: Available scripted information was collected manually, from peered review research papers and international databases viz. Science Direct, Google Scholar, SciFinder, Scopus, etc. The unpublished resources which were not available in database were collected through the classical books of ‘Ayurveda’ and ‘Siddha’ published in regional languages. The information from books, Ph.D. and MSc dissertations, conference papers and government reports were also collected. We thoroughly screened the scripted information of classical books, titles, abstracts, reports, and full-texts of the journals to establish the reliability of the content. Results: Tuber bearing vanilla like signature flavor is due to the presence of 2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzaldehyde (HMB). Among five other species, Decalepis arayalpathra (DA) has come under the ‘critically endangered’ category, due to over-exploitation for traditional, therapeutic and cool drink use. The experimental studies proved that it possesses gastro-protective, anti-tumor, and antiinflammatory activities. Some efforts were also made to develop better therapeutics by logical modifications in 2-Hydroxy-4-methoxy-benzaldehyde, which is a major secondary metabolite of D. arayalpathra. ‘Amruthapala’ offers the enormous opportunity to develop herbal drink with health benefits like gastro-protective, anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory actions. Results: The plant has the potential to generate the investigational new lead (IND) based on its major secondary metabolite i.e. 2-Hydroxy-4-methoxy-benzaldehyde. The present mini-review summarizes the current knowledge on Decalepis arayalpathra, covering its phytochemical diversity, biological potentials, strategies for its conservation, and intellectual property rights (IPR) status. Chemical Compounds: 2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzaldehyde (Pubchem CID: 69600), α-amyrin acetate (Pubchem CID: 293754), Magnificol (Pubchem CID: 44575983), β-sitosterol (Pubchem CID: 222284), 3-hydroxy-p-anisaldehyde (Pubchem CID: 12127), Naringenin (Pubchem CID: 932), Kaempferol (Pubchem CID: 5280863), Aromadendrin (Pubchem CID: 122850), 3-methoxy-1,2-cyclopentanedione (Pubchem CID: 61209), p-anisaldehyde (Pubchem CID: 31244), Menthyl acetate (Pubchem CID: 27867), Benzaldehyde (Pubchem CID: 240), p-cymene (Pubchem CID: 7463), Salicylaldehyde (Pubchem CID: 6998), 10-epi-γ-eudesmol (Pubchem CID: 6430754), α -amyrin (Pubchem CID: 225688), 3-hydroxy-4-methoxy benzaldehyde (Pubchem CID: 12127).

Disorders of Impulse Control and Self-Harm

2010 ◽  
pp. 504-530 ◽  
Author(s):  
Matthew K. Nock ◽  
Christine B. Cha ◽  
Halina J. Dour
Keyword(s):  
Environmental Factors ◽  
Psychological Factors ◽  
Impulse Control ◽  
Clinical Presentation ◽  
Evidence Based ◽  
Comprehensive Review ◽  
Assessment And Treatment ◽  
Self Harm ◽  
Clinical Problems ◽  
Control Spectrum

Disorders of impulse-control and self-harm are dangerous clinical problems that often present significant challenges for scientists and clinicians. In this chapter, we provide a comprehensive review of each disorder on the impulse-control spectrum. We begin by describing the clinical presentation and epidemiology of each disorder. Next, we discuss what is currently known about the etiology of these disorders, summarizing recent research on genetic/neurobiological factors, environmental factors, and psychological factors that appear to influence these disorders. The assessment and treatment of disorders of impulse-control and self-harm is complicated by the relatively low base-rate of these disorders, as well as by their dangerous and sensitive nature. Nevertheless, several evidence-based approaches to assessment and treatment have been developed and also are reviewed here. We conclude with recommendations for future scientific and clinical efforts aimed at better understanding, predicting, and preventing disorders of impulse-control and self-harm.

scholarly journals Remote Virtual Simulation for Incident Commanders—Cognitive Aspects

2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (14) ◽  
pp. 6434
Author(s):  
Cecilia Hammar Wijkmark ◽  
Maria Monika Metallinou ◽  
Ilona Heldal
Keyword(s):  
Decision Making ◽  
Problem Solving ◽  
Cognitive Processes ◽  
Research Methodology ◽  
Current Knowledge ◽  
Learning Objectives ◽  
Virtual Simulation ◽  
Practical Training ◽  
Case Research ◽  
Action Case

Due to the COVID-19 restrictions, on-site Incident Commander (IC) practical training and examinations in Sweden were canceled as of March 2020. The graduation of one IC class was, however, conducted through Remote Virtual Simulation (RVS), the first such examination to our current knowledge. This paper presents the necessary enablers for setting up RVS and its influence on cognitive aspects of assessing practical competences. Data were gathered through observations, questionnaires, and interviews from students and instructors, using action-case research methodology. The results show the potential of RVS for supporting higher cognitive processes, such as recognition, comprehension, problem solving, decision making, and allowed students to demonstrate whether they had achieved the required learning objectives. Other reported benefits were the value of not gathering people (imposed by the pandemic), experiencing new, challenging incident scenarios, increased motivation for applying RVS based training both for students and instructors, and reduced traveling (corresponding to 15,400 km for a class). While further research is needed for defining how to integrate RVS in practical training and assessment for IC education and for increased generalizability, this research pinpoints current benefits and limitations, in relation to the cognitive aspects and in comparison, to previous examination formats.

scholarly journals Developing a Sense of Knowing and Acquiring the Skills to Manage Pain in Children with Profound Cognitive Impairments: Mothers’ Perspectives

2017 ◽  
Vol 2017 ◽  
pp. 1-11 ◽  
Author(s):  
Bernie Carter ◽  
Janine Arnott ◽  
Joan Simons ◽  
Lucy Bray
Keyword(s):  
Mixed Method ◽  
Qualitative Data ◽  
Reflective Learning ◽  
Descriptive Statistics ◽  
Mixed Method Study ◽  
Trial And Error ◽  
Knowledge And Skills ◽  
Pain Diary ◽  
Heterogenous Group ◽  
Error Learning

Children with profound cognitive impairment (PCI) are a heterogenous group who often experience frequent and persistent pain. Those people closest to the child are key to assessing their pain. This mixed method study aimed to explore how parents acquire knowledge and skills in assessing and managing their child’s pain. Eight mothers completed a weekly pain diary and were interviewed at weeks 1 and 8. Qualitative data were analysed using thematic analysis and the quantitative data using descriptive statistics. Mothers talked of learning through a system of trial and error (“learning to get on with it”); this was accomplished through “learning to know without a rule book or guide”; “learning to be a convincing advocate”; and “learning to endure and to get things right.” Experiential and reflective learning was evident in the way the mothers developed a “sense of knowing” their child’s pain. They drew on embodied knowledge of how their child usually expressed and responded to pain to help make pain-related decisions. Health professionals need to support mothers/parents to develop their knowledge and skills and to gain confidence in pain assessment and they should recognise and act on the mothers’ concerns.

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